Exploring Interactional Competence in EFL Context: Focusing on L2 Speakers' Self-repair Practices

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :사범대학 외국어교육과(영어전공),2019. 8. 안현기.제 2 언어 사용자들이 상호 간에 언어적 및 상호작용적 도구를 이용하여 의사소통을 수행해내는 능력은 제 2언어 습득 및 학습 분야에서 큰 관심을 받고 있다. 특히 Firth & Wagner (1997)의 제 2언어 학습에 대한 재개념화 (reconceptualization) 이후, 외국어 교육 전문가들은 제 2언어 사용자들이 실제 생활에서 원래 의도한 사회적 행위 (social actions)를 달성하기 위하여 어떻게 청자의 입장에서 언어적 도구를 활용하며, 계속적으로 변화하는 맥락에 맞추어 자신의 언어를 변화시키고, 다음에 올 행위를 예측하는지를 관찰하였다 (Young, 2008, 2011; Pekarek Doehler & Pochon-Berger, 2015). 이러한 상호작용 능력 (interactional competence)은 대화분석 (conversation analysis) 연구방법을 적용하여 제 2 언어 사용자들이 어떻게 대화를 주고 받고 (turn-taking), 순서에 따라 대화를 발전해 나가며 (sequence organization), 이해의 문제가 있을 때 교정하는지 (repair organization)의 분석을 통하여 연구가 되어 왔다. 그러나 이 분야는 아직도 충분히 연구가 되지 않았으며, 어떻게 상호작용 능력이 발전하고 있는 것을 확인할 수 있는지 더 많은 실질적인 근거가 필요한 실정이다. 본 연구는 이러한 흐름에 맞추어 제 2언어 사용자들이 자기 교정(self-repair)을 하는 과정 속에서 어떻게 상호작용 능력을 드러내는지 알아보고자 하였다. 기존의 연구가 자기 교정 능력을 명백한 언어적 오류가 있는 경우에 한하여 분석한 것에 반하여, 이번 연구는 발화자가 이미 발화한 내용에 언어적 규칙 위반 사항이 없음에도 불구하고 스스로 발화를 멈추고 자기 교정을 하는 경우를 살펴보았다. 제 2언어 연구 참여자들은 TOEFL 말하기 시험 결과와 영어를 사용하는 국가에 체류한 기간을 기준으로 세 집단으로 나뉘었고, 영어 학습과 여행을 주제로 대화하였다. 녹음된 대화 내용은 대화 분석 기호에 맞추어 전사하였다. 전사한 내용을 분석한 결과, 본 연구 참여자들은 자기 교정 중에서도 다시 말하기 (recycling), 추가하기 (inserting), 삽입구 넣기 (parenthesizing), 치환하기 (replacing), 재형식화 하기 (reformatting), 그리고 찾기를 (searching) 주로 사용하는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고 이러한 유형의 분석을 통하여 자기 교정은 기존의 언어적 문제점을 수정하기 위한 것이 아니라 앞으로 나타날 수 있는 문제에 미리 대비하기 위하여 사용될 수 있다는 것을 보여주었다. 다시 말하기의 경우 (recycling) 참여자가 새로운 발화를 시작하고자 할 때 기존의 화자와 중복이 되어 (overlapping) 다른 화자들이 제대로 듣지 못하는 것에 미리 대비하기 위한 전략이었다. 이것은 참여자들이 기존의 발화에 언어적 오류가 없음에도 다른 대화 참여자를 위해 자기 교정을 미리 할 수 있다는 것을 암시하였다. 연구 참여자들은 또한 기존 발화에 대하여 새로운 단어를 추가하거나 (inserting) 삽입구를 넣음으로써 (parenthesizing) 자신들이 말하고자 하는 바를 명확하게 하였고 이것은 대화 참여자들이 겪을 수 있는 이해의 문제를 사전에 예방하는 역할을 하였다. 연구 참여자들은 기존의 발화된 단어를 다른 단어로 치환하거나 (replacing) 발화된 문법적 형태를 변환하였는데 (reformatting) 이것 역시 말하고자 하는 내용을 사전에 분명하게 제시하여 추후에 나올 수 있는 애매모호함 (ambiguity)의 문제를 미리 해결하고 타자가 시작하는 교정의 가능성을 (other-initiated repair) 줄여서 본 대화의 시퀀스가 중단되지 않고 이어지도록 하였다 (progressivity). 찾기 (searching) 과정에서는 연구 참여자들이 모국어나 참여자들에게 도움 얻기 등의 방법을 적절하게 사용하여 상호작용이 계속 이어지도록 하였다. 이렇게 연구 참여자들은 자기 교정의 과정에서 여러 방법을 사용하여 서로를 이해시키고 대화를 통한 상호작용이 이어지도록 하였다. 그러나 이 자기 교정의 과정 속에서 연구 참여자들은 L2 능력에 따라서 다른 방법을 사용하고 있었는데, 이로써 L2 능력과 상호능력이 매우 밀접하게 연관되어 있다는 점을 확인하였다. Pekarek Doehler & Pochon-Berger(2015)는 상호능력의 중요한 증거 중 하나로써 상호적 실행 (interactional practice) 방법의 다양화 (diversification)를 들고 있는데, 상황과 문맥에 맞추어 다양화를 위해 뒷받침 되어야 하는 것이 바로 L2의 능력이었다. 예를 들어 찾기 (searching)의 과정에 있어서 교정 시작 장치 (repair initiators)에만 의지하거나 단순히 대화의 흐름을 멈추어버린 초기 L2 사용자들에 비해 L2 능력이 높은 참여자들은 목표 단어가 맞는지 확인하기 (try-marking), 상위인지 언어 사용 (metalanguage) 등의 다양한 방법을 사용하고 있었으며, 상호작용이 중단되지 않고 계속 이어지도록 하였다. 이것은 상호작용을 조절하는데 필요한 기본적인 L2 자원이 충분히 뒷받침되었기 때문이 가능하였다. 또한 초기 L2 사용자들은 다시 말하기를 (recycling) 기존 화자의 발화가 계속 이어지고 있는 상황에서 사용하였는데, 이것 역시 대화 주고받기가 이루어져야 하는 맥락을 파악하는데 있어 언어적 능력을 활용하지 못하기 때문인 것으로 나타났다. 삽입구 넣기는 (parenthesizing) 오직 L2 능력이 높은 참여자 집단에서만 나타났는데, 끊임없이 펼쳐지는 상호작용 순간에 절 (clause) 형식을 갖춘 발화를 구성하고 이것을 대화 참여자들의 이해를 높이기 위하여 삽입한다는 것이 높은 L2 능력을 요구하기 때문이었다. 또한 치환 (replacing) 과정은 참여자들의 상호작용 능력의 차이를 조금 더 분명하게 보여주었다. L2 능력이 낮은 참여자들은 목표 단어를 찾지 못하였을 경우 다른 접근 가능한, 의미범주가 넓고 음성학적 정보가 간단한 단어로 변환하였고, L2 능력이 중간인 참여자들은 문법적인 오류가 있을 때 그것을 수정하기 위한 방법으로 변환을 사용하였다. 이 두 가지의 경우는 발화를 하는 과정에서 분명한 문제점이 있는 경우였다. 그러나 L2 능력이 높은 참여자들은 언어적 문제가 없음에도 불구하고 기존에 발화하였던 단어 대신에 의미 범주에 있어서 더욱 구체적인 단어로 변환하였다. 이것은 화자가 어떻게 미리 세부 사항을 조절함으로써 청자들이 애매모호한 해석을 피하고 쉽게 이해하도록 도와주는지를 보여주었다. 추가 (inserting) 및 삽입구 넣기 (parenthesizing) 과정에서도 앞의 치환과 같이 L2 수준이 높은 참여자들은 기존 발화한 내용의 범주를 좁히는 세부제어성을 (granularity) 보여주었다. 이것은 청자들로 하여금 발화를 해석하는데 있어 가능한 의미범주를 미리 줄여주고 더 명확한 이해가 가능하도록 하는 역할을 하였다. 상호작용 능력의 핵심이 청자에 맞추어 자신의 발화를 맞추는 작업이라고 (recipient-design) 한다면 (Waring, 2016), 자기 교정을 통하여 미리 세부 사항을 조절하는 능력은 상호작용의 발전을 보여주는 핵심적인 근거로 볼 수 있을 것이다.In our everyday life, we speak. We speak of others, we are spoken by others, and we speak for others. Speakers carefully tailor their talk in a way to be accepted and comprehensible for the co-participants, who make interpretative efforts to understand and to provide relevant next actions to the prior speaker. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has recently focused on the importance of actual language use collaboratively with the other participants, which displayed their interactional competence (IC). The abilities to construct and allocate turns, to provide sequentially appropriate response, and to repair for maintaining intersubjectivity are all essentially based on L2 speakers' IC. Taking the advice from Skogmyr and Marian Balaman (2018) to broaden the interactional practices, the purpose of this cross-sectional study was to find the evidence for IC development from repair practices by L2 speakers with different oral proficiency. Three groups of L2 speakers participated and their talk-in-interaction was transcribed and analyzed within the methodological framework of Conversation Analysis (CA). The study classified the usage of self-initiated self-repair practices into six categories adapting the study by Schegloff (2013): recycling, inserting, parenthesizing, replacing, reformatting, and searching. 'Recycling' in turn-beginning practice displayed that even the novice speakers were able to preempt the possible mishearing which might have been caused by overlapping. However, compared to the intermediate and advanced L2 speakers, L2 novice speakers sometimes failed to use syntactic resources for managing turn- taking, and ended up launching turns in a place where turn transition was not relevant. The L2 participants also used 'inserting' to add more information which contributed to enhancing clarity. More importantly, the intermediate and advanced speakers inserted additional elements to be specific in the meaning range. This insertion preempted the possible misunderstandings which might have been caused from the ambiguity. The advanced speakers also used 'parenthesizing', or the addition of clausal turn constructional units (TCUs), to clearly add specific information before the other recipients raised the problems of understanding. 'Replacing' was a type of self-initiated self-repair (SISR) in which L2 speakers changed the previously produced items into the new one. While the novice speakers repaired on their way of searching the target word and the intermediate speakers mostly replaced for fixing the grammatical errors, advanced speakers repaired for narrowing down the meaning range, by orienting to "granularity" (Schegloff, 2000a). This suggested that repair is not necessarily for fixing the evident language trouble, but preempting the potential mishearing in advance. 'Reformatting' is changing of already produced TCU with a new TCU with a different structure while retaining the same meaning. The intermediate L2 speakers heavily used this type of SISR not only to correct the grammatical problems but also to change the perspectives to produce their talk in the clear. This is an important clue for the IC development, as L2 speakers displayed their ability to use repair with an eye to their co-participants (Schegloff et al., 2002, p. 5). The participants deployed 'searching' when they were temporarily unable to find the target item due, possibly due to L2 deficiency. Compared to the novice speakers who frequently depended on silence or non-lexical perturbations which made their actions ambiguous, the advanced speakers used metalinguistic remarks to explicitly demonstrate that searching was still under way to maintain the progressivity of talk. The results of the study demonstrated that the participants, regardless of L2 proficiency, were able to initiate and complete the problems of interaction to re-establish intersubjectivity and maintain the overall progressivity of talk-in- interaction. This is an important clue of IC. The results of the study still suggested, however, that there were the important clues for the development of IC, which were related with language development. Language was the main resource for coordinating actions, and proficient L2 speakers had more linguistic resources to project actions and to diversify the methods that were more suitable for the local contexts of talk-in-interaction. Development of IC was not just being able to carry out the interaction anyhow, but to organize their social conducts in a way to be more acceptable and comprehensible for the recipients using linguistic and other interactional resources. It is hoped that the current study described pedagogically useful interactional features of IC and have expanded the scope of the L2 IC development into diverse interactional contexts. The results of the study can also hopefully contribute to understanding the significance of the diversification of practices and of fine-tuning the levels of granularity in talk-in-interaction for recipient-designed talk.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. Review of the Literature 6 2.1 From L2 learner to L2 speaker 6 2.2 Interactional Competence and its development 11 2.2.1 Longitudinal studies on L2 IC 16 2.2.2 Cross-sectional studies on L2 IC 20 2.2.3 Methodological challenges 21 2.3 Repair and IC Development 30 2.3.1 Repair: Definition and organization 30 2.3.2 Different methods of self-repair 34 2.3.3 L2 IC studies on repair organization 41 2.4 Research Questions 45 Chapter 3. Methodology 46 3.1 Data Collection 46 3.2 Procedures 48 Chapter 4. Research Findings and Discussion 46 4.1 Recycling 52 4.2 Inserting 62 4.3 Parenthesizing 69 4.4 Replacing 74 4.5 Reformatting 89 4.6 Researching 92 Chapter 5. Conclusion 108 References 114 Appendix 129 Abstract in Korean 130Docto

Relationship of the standard uptake value of 18 F-FDG-PET-CT with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in breast tumors measuring ≥ 1 cm

Evidence suggests that tumor cells and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) compete for glucose in the tumor microenvironment and that tumor metabolic parameters correlate with localized immune markers in several solid tumors. We investigated the relationship of the standardized uptake value (SUV) of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography computed tomography (18F-FDG-PET-CT) with stromal TIL levels in breast cancer. We included 202 patients who underwent preoperative 18F-FDG-PET-CT and had a tumor measuring ≥ 1 cm. Maximum SUV (SUVmax) was determined using 18F-FDG-PET-CT. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify factors related to high TIL levels (≥ 40%). All tumors were treatment naïve. A significant and weak correlation existed between continuous SUVmax and continuous TIL levels (p = 0.002, R = 0.215). Tumors with high SUVmax (≥ 4) had higher mean TIL levels than those with low SUVmax (< 4). In multivariable analysis, continuous SUVmax was an independent factor associated with high TIL levels; each 1-unit increment in SUVmax corresponded to an odds ratio of 1.14 (95% confidence interval: 1.01-1.29) for high TIL levels. Our study implies that SUV is associated with TILs in breast cancer and provides clinical evidence that elevated glucose uptake by breast tumors can predict the immune system-activated tumor micromilieu.ope

The association between the expression of nuclear Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) and p53 protein expression profile in breast cancer patients

Background: Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) is a key effector molecule regulated by the Hippo pathway and described as a poor prognostic factor in breast cancer. Tumor protein 53 (TP53) mutation is well known as a biomarker related to poor survival outcomes. So far clinical characteristics and survival outcome according to YAP1 and TP53 mutation have been poorly identified in breast cancer. Patients and methods: Retrospectively, 533 breast tumor tissues were collected at the Seoul St Mary's hospital and Gangnam Severance Hospital from 1992 to 2017. Immunohistochemistry with YAP1 and p53 specific antibodies were performed, and the clinical data were analyzed. Results: Mutant p53 pattern was associated with aggressive tumor features and advanced anatomical stage. Inferior overall survival (OS) and recurrence free survival (RFS) were related with mutant p53 pattern cases with low nuclear YAP1 expression (P = 0.0009 and P = 0.0011, respectively). Multivariate analysis showed that mutant p53 pattern was an independent prognostic marker for OS [hazard ratios (HR): 2.938, 95% confidence intervals (CIs): 1.028-8.395, P = 0.044] and RFS (HR: 1.842, 95% CIs: 1.026-3.304). However, in cases with high nuclear YAP1 expression, there were no significantly difference in OS and RFS according to p53 staining pattern. Conclusion: We found that mutant p53 pattern is a poor prognostic biomarker in breast tumor with low nuclear YAP1 expression. Our findings suggest that interaction between nuclear YAP1 and p53 expression pattern impact survival outcomes.ope

The Impact of Post-Mastectomy Radiotherapy on Survival Outcomes in Breast Cancer Patients Who Underwent Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

This study aimed to determine whether post-mastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT) is beneficial for the prognosis of patients who achieved pathologic complete response (pCR), or who had minimal residual disease, after undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). Patients who underwent a total mastectomy between 2006 and 2018, after NAC, were included. Patients who did not receive PMRT were matched using 1:3 propensity score matching (PSM). Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to compare locoregional recurrence-free survival (LRRFS) and overall survival (OS). A total of 368 patients were included after 1:3 PSM. PMRT improved the LRRFS (p = 0.016) and OS (p = 0.017) rates of patients who underwent NAC. However, PMRT did not affect the prognosis of patients with pCR (LRRFS: p = 0.999; OS: p = 0.453). In addition, PMRT had a limited effect on LRRFS and OS in patients who responded well to NAC, with a neoadjuvant response index (NRI) value of 0.7-1.0 (LRRFS: p = 0.568; OS: p = 0.875). PMRT improved the OS of patients with a large residual tumor burden, such as nodal metastases or pathologic stage II/III. The benefits of PMRT vary depending on the patients' response to NAC, although PMRT is useful for treating patients who underwent NAC. PMRT can be omitted, not only in patients with pCR, but also in good responders with an NRI value of 0.7-1.0.ope

Radiotherapy-Induced High Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio is a Negative Prognostic Factor in Patients with Breast Cancer

Radiotherapy (RT) is the standard of care following breast-conserving operation in breast cancer patients. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) reflects the systemic change caused as a result of the radiotherapy. We aimed to evaluate the association between RT and the change in NLR following the receipt of RT, and to investigate the prognostic impact. We retrospectively reviewed NLR values of breast cancer patients taken before the administration of the first and the last session of RT. The cut-off point for the NLR was determined using the Youden index and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve within the training set. Recurrence-free survival (RFS), distant metastasis free survival, and overall survival were the main outcomes. Patients with an NLR higher than 3.49 after RT were classified to an RT-induced high NLR group and showed a significantly higher recurrence rate compared to those with low NLR (p < 0.001). In a multivariate Cox proportional hazards model, RT-induced high NLR remained a significant prognostic factor (HR 2.194, 95% CI 1.230-3.912, p = 0.008 for tumor recurrence. We demonstrated that an increase in NLR over the course of RT has a negative impact on survival, putting these patients with RT-susceptible host immunity at a higher risk of tumor recurrence.ope

Diagnostic Accuracy of Nonmass Enhancement at Breast MRI in Predicting Tumor Involvement of the Nipple: A Prospective Study in a Single Institution

Background Although nonmass enhancement (NME) extension to the nipple at preoperative MRI frequently leads to sacrifice of the nipple-areolar complex (NAC), its correlation with pathologically confirmed NAC involvement is unclear. Purpose To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of using NME extension to the subareolar region at breast MRI to predict pathologic nipple involvement and the eligibility for nipple-sparing mastectomy. Materials and Methods From November 2017 to November 2019, the authors prospectively enrolled participants with breast cancer and NME within 2 cm of the nipple at breast MRI who underwent surgery that included removal of the NAC. The authors evaluated NME extensions that were ipsilateral and contiguous with the biopsy-proven tumor lesions on images acquired during the early contrast phases. Pathologic nipple involvement and the distance from the nipple to the nearest cancer cell were evaluated by using serial vertical sectioning of the area extending from the entire NAC to the tumor. The primary end point was the positive predictive value (PPV) of NME, which was calculated as follows: (number with pathologic nipple invasion and NME extension to the nipple at breast MRI/number with NME extension to the nipple at breast MRI) × 100. Results Of 64 women (mean age, 52 years ± 9.8 [standard deviation]), 49 (77%) had NME extension to the nipple at breast MRI. The PPV of NME extension to the nipple was 86% (42 of 49 women; 95% CI: 73, 94). Among the 15 participants without NME extension to the nipple, only one (7%) had pathologic nipple involvement. The diagnostic accuracy of using NME extension to the nipple was 88% (56 of 64 women; 95% CI: 77, 95). The radiologic distance correlated well with the pathologic distance (Spearman correlation coefficient = 0.71, P = .003). Conclusion Nonmass enhancement extension to the nipple base at preoperative MRI has a high positive predictive value for identifying tumor involvement of the nipple, a contraindication to nipple-sparing mastectomy. © RSNA, 2021 Online supplemental material is available for this article.restrictio