Anti-Neuroinflammatory effects of the extract of Achillea fragrantissima

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The neuroinflammatory process plays a central role in the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, and involves the activation of brain microglial cells. During the neuroinflammatory process, microglial cells release proinflammatory mediators such as cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO). In the present study, extracts from 66 different desert plants were tested for their effect on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) - induced production of NO by primary microglial cells. The extract of <it>Achillea fragrantissima </it>(<it>Af</it>)<it/>, which is a desert plant that has been used for many years in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases, was the most efficient extract, and was further studied for additional anti-neuroinflammatory effects in these cells.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>In the present study, the ethanolic extract prepared from <it>Af </it>was tested for its anti-inflammatory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated primary cultures of brain microglial cells. The levels of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) secreted by the cells were determined by reverse transcriptase-PCR and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. NO levels secreted by the activate cells were measured using Griess reagent, ROS levels were measured by 2'7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA), MMP-9 activity was measured using gel zymography, and the protein levels of the proinflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were measured by Western blot analysis. Cell viability was assessed using Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the media conditioned by the cells or by the crystal violet cell staining.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We have found that out of the 66 desert plants tested, the extract of <it>Af </it>was the most efficient extract and inhibited ~70% of the NO produced by the LPS-activated microglial cells, without affecting cell viability. In addition, this extract inhibited the LPS - elicited expression of the proinflammatory mediators IL-1β, TNFα, MMP-9, COX-2 and iNOS in these cells.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Thus, phytochemicals present in the <it>Af </it>extract could be beneficial in preventing/treating neurodegenerative diseases in which neuroinflammation is part of the pathophysiology.</p

A Test of Radio-Transmitter Effects on Parental Investment and Productivity in the Northern Cardinal

Researchers often attach radio transmitters and other devices to free-living birds without a clear understanding of the possible consequences for their study organisms or their data. Although transmitters may affect parental investment (nest defense and offspring provisioning), this possibility has received little attention. We tested this hypothesis by placing mock radio transmitters on male Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) and comparing their behavior to that of uncaptured birds and procedural controls. Birds with transmitters defended their nests less vigorously than did uncaptured birds but did not modify their provisioning effort. This behavioral modification appears to have ultimately influenced predation rates, as nests of birds with transmitters had lower daily survival rates and were less likely to fledge offspring. Control birds that were captured, handled, and bled had intermediate levels of nest defense and productivity that were statistically indistinguishable from those of birds receiving other treatments, suggesting that capture, restraint, and blood collection may affect birds in ways that are independent of transmitters\u27 effects. Interestingly, we also found limited evidence that females mated to males with transmitters increased their provisioning effort, possibly in compensation for a perceived reduction in their mate\u27s care. Because attachment of a transmitter (and potentially blood sampling) directly affected the behavior and reproduction of birds with transmitters and may have indirectly affected the behavior of their mates, we suggest researchers cautiously balance the benefits of such methods against potential data biases and impairment of reproduction. © The Cooper Ornithological Society 2013