Financing basic education in Bangladesh

This paper presents education finance trends for Bangladesh since 2000. It shows that while government spending on education as a proportion of national income has stagnated, it has increased in real terms. Real increases in education spending have resulted in substantial increases in per student spending in basic education. At primary, enrolment declines have reinforced these trends and in 2005 per student spending in government primary schools was 30% higher, in real terms than in 2001. Despite these increases, per student spending on education in Bangladesh remains low compared to other countries in the region and countries at similar levels of development. Levels of government funding also vary enormously across different providers of basic education although these differences do not appear to have a significant impact on education outcomes at the primary level. At secondary, there appears to be a closer correlation between levels of public funding and outcomes although the socio-economic status of student intakes also appears to play an important role. To achieve equitable access to basic education, it is important to narrow these public funding differences. However, given the comparatively low levels of funding across the basic education system it is perhaps more important to increase overall levels of funding if the quality and overall efficiency of the system is to be improved.Education; education finance; Bangladesh; basic education

Financing Basic Education in Bangladesh

This paper presents education finance trends for Bangladesh since 2000. It shows that while government spending on education as a proportion of national income has stagnated, it has increased in real terms. Real increases in education spending have resulted in substantial increases in per student spending in basic education. At primary, enrolment declines have reinforced these trends and in 2005 per student spending in government primary schools was 30% higher, in real terms than in 2001. Despite these increases, per student spending on education in Bangladesh remains low compared to other countries in the region and countries at similar levels of development. Levels of government funding also vary enormously across different providers of basic education although these differences do not appear to have a significant impact on education outcomes at the primary level. At secondary, there appears to be a closer correlation between levels of public funding and outcomes although the socio-economic status of student intakes also appears to play an important role. To achieve equitable access to basic education, it is important to narrow these public funding differences. However, given the comparatively low levels of funding across the basic education system it is perhaps more important to increase overall levels of funding if the quality and overall efficiency of the system is to be improved

Education, Employment and Earnings of Secondary School-Leavers in Tanzania: Evidence from a Tracer Study

The extent of information on labour market outcomes and the earnings of educated groups in Tanzania, and Sub-Saharan Africa more generally, are limited. This is particularly so for individuals who fail to gain access to wage employment and are required to rely on exploiting self-employment opportunities. The current paper, using a recently completed tracer survey of secondary school completers, analyses the impact of education and training on individual welfare through the estimation of earnings equations. Our empirical evidence suggests that the rates of return to educational qualifications are not negligible and, at the margin, provide an investment incentive. However, we find little evidence of human capital effects in the earnings determination process in the self-employment sector. Information contained in the tracer survey allowed the introduction of controls for father’s educational background and a set of school fixed effects designed to proxy for school quality and potential labour market network effects. The analysis shows that the inclusion of these controls tends to reduce the estimated rates of return to educational qualifications. This emphasizes the potential confounding role of school quality/network effects and parental background for rate of return analysis. We would argue that a failure to control for such background variables potentially leads to an over-statement in the estimated returns to education. A comparison of our results with evidence from other countries in the region shows that despite an extremely small secondary and university education system the private rates of return to education in the Tanzanian wage employment sector are relatively low.

Achieving education for all: How much does money matter?

This paper explores the extent to which differences in the resources allocated to education explain differences in educational access and performance across countries. Cross-country regression analysis shows that the link between educational access and performance and public education expenditure is weak.. The paper suggests that levels of household spending, the effectiveness of the public expenditure management system and the composition of public education spending are important factors explaining this weak link. The results imply that the achievement of the education millennium development goals will require more than just increases in expenditure on primary education. This does not imply that resources are unnecessary, but that increasing resources alone is unlikely to be sufficient. The composition of resources and institutions that govern the use of these resources play a central role in translating resources into better schooling outcomes. A stronger focus on these aspects of education systems will be required if the Millennium Development Goals in education are to be achieved.education; public expenditure; millennium development goals

Medicine in the Margins: Access, resistance and health care utilization among the Tuareg of Niger

This thesis explores the historical, cultural and social reasons for the wariness that the nomadic Tuareg of Niger have towards Western medicine and medical practitioners. I give a historical account of their interactions with and resistance to the French colonial administration and the postcolonial state of Niger and how this resistance to Western medicine and health clinics was an embodied form of political and social resistance to governmentality and state attempts at sedentarization. I provide historical example of when health care delivery was successful and was embraced rather than resisted as well as the ways in which the Tuareg have not only integrated Western medicines into their lives but the ways in which these often scarce medicines are distributed to the community as a whole. I performed a systematic review of the medical, public health, and social science literature examining published and unpublished documents and doctoral dissertations on the health of the Tuareg and history of Niger. I also conducted interviews with journalists, anthropologists, humanitarian aid workers and a physician that have worked with the Tuareg in Niger. Despite this resistance and physical remoteness there are also success stories of how trust can be achieved and health care successfully delivered to the Tuareg. This research demonstrates that even with enormous cultural, social and political resistance and under circumstances of poor infrastructure and limited resources, Western medicine is not only desired but can be delivered to remote populations. In my conclusion, I discuss the differential impact that sedentarization and recent famines have had on the way of life of the Tuareg and their access to health care

Teacher Reform in Indonesia: The Role of Politics and Evidence in Policy Making

Teacher Reform in Indonesia: The Role of Politics and Evidence in Policy Making is the result of seven years of collaborative effort between the Human Development Sector of the World Bank Indonesia country office and the Government of Indonesia. The Human Development Sector, led by Mae Chu Chang, produced over 50 independent background papers by Bank staff, government researchers, and international consultants, as well several major research projects including an impact evaluation and in-depth classroom observations. This synthesis report was prepared under the team leadership of Mae Chu Chang and included as mem- bers Samer Al-Samarrai, Andrew Ragatz, Joppe de Ree, Sheldon Shaeffer, and Ritchie Stevenson (co-authors) as well as Rina Arlianti, Susiana Iskandar, and Titie Hadiyati (contributors). Research assistance was provided by Shahnaz Arina, Megha Kapoor, Imam Setiawan, and Susie Sugiarti. Mary Anderson provided editorial support, and the graphic designer was Yvonne Armanto Ramali. \ud The production of this report, as well as the variety of research studies con- ducted over the past seven years on which the book is based, was generously supported by the Dutch Education Support Program (DESP) funded by the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The team is indebted to Arnold Vander Zanden (First Secretary Education, Royal Netherlands Embassy, Indonesia) for his strong support throughout the years for demand-driven and “just-in-time” policy work that has been carried out under DESP. Technical con- tributions from AusAID-supported consultants, Graham Dawson and John Bladen, are also acknowledged. \ud It should be noted that although inputs of various officials have been incorpo- rated into the report, the policy recommendations in this document do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Government of Indonesia, the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, or the World Bank. \ud The team of authors who produced this report is grateful to the officials and staff of the Ministry of Education and Culture for their overall support. Special thanks are in order to Fasli Jalal, former Vice Minister of Education, who was the visionary behind the Teacher Law that inspired this report and a key supporter of many of the teacher management studies that contributed to it. The current Minister of Education and Culture, Mohammad Nuh; Vice Minister of Education, Musliar Kasim; the Special Advisor to the Minister, Taufik Hanafi; the Head of \ud the Board of Education and Culture, Human Resources Development and Quality Assurance for Education, Syawal Gultom; and the former Director General for Quality Improvement of Teacher and Education Personnel, Baedhowi, played major roles in using the evidence produced to improve the teacher regula- tions. The report also benefited greatly from the inputs of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the National Development Planning Agency, the Ministry of State Administration Reform, the Ministry of Finance, and the Civil Service Agency, together with inputs of donor agencies that were received during various consultation meetings and policy forum discussions. Key government support came from the directors, the head of centers, and senior key staff of the Ministry responsible for teacher management, quality assurance, and teacher-related stud- ies: Sumarna Suryapranata, Surya Dharma, Hendarman, Unifah Rosyidi, Abi Sujak, Muchlas Samani, Anah Suhaenah, Gogot Suharwoto, Maria Widiani, Poppy Puspitawati, Dian Wahyuni, Santi Ambarukmi, E. Nurzaman, Giri Suryaatmana, Ahmad Dasuki, Bambang Indriyanto, Nugaan Yulia Wardhani Siregar, Hari Setiadi, Burhanudin Tola, Yendri Wirda Burhan, Simon Sili Sabon, Rahmawati, Handayani Sumarno, Rumtini, Yaya Zakaria, and M.S. Sembiring. \ud Insightful comments from stakeholders were provided by Lilian Rahman (Gorontalo district), Sulistiyo (Chair of the Teacher Association of Republic of Indonesia, PGRI), Sahiri Hermawan (PGRI), Arief Rahman (Chair of the Indonesian National Commission for UNESCO), Heri Akhmadi (a member of Parliament), Anies Baswedan (Rector of Paramadina University and Chair of Indonesia Mengajar), Hetty Herawati (Principal of SD Taruna Bangsa), Sudarwan Danim and Anthony Crocker (consultants at the Board of Education and Culture, Human Resources Development and Quality Assurance for Education), Agus Supriatman (Head of the Education Office, Karawang District), Nanda Suhanda (a member of the Karawang District Parliament), Obang Nurbayu (Head of PGRI, Karawang District), and Nanang Muchlis (Chair, Board of Education, Karawang District). \ud The report was improved by detailed feedback from the following principal reviewers: F. Halsey Rogers, Venkatesh Sundararaman, and Helen J. Craig (World Bank); Molly Lee (formerly UNESCO); and Tom Lowrie (Charles Sturt University). Helpful comments were also received from William Wallace, James A. Brumby, and Yasuhiko Matsuda (World Bank). The report was prepared under the guidance of Luis Benveniste, Sector Manager, East Asia and Pacific Region, and the support of Stefan Koeberle (Country Director for Indonesia)

The role of agricultural cooperatives in economics and social development in Iraq

The study reported herein is based on an investigation of the available literature in both Arabic and English on the role of agriculture cooperatives in economic and social development in Iraq. The study reveals that agriculture cooperative movement is multi-purpose and is supported, encouraged and directed by the national government. Throughout its development, the agriculture cooperative movement faced numerous problems of both social and economical nature. But after 1968, the government devoted much effort in an attempt to eliminate or lessen the burden of these problems. In all its plans, government policy aimed to assist cooperatives in overcoming the problems. This support was based on two main objectives: 1. To increase agricultural production. 2. To bring about social and economic changes for rural areas in which the majority of citizens earning low incomes reside. The performance of agricultural cooperatives has not solved all prob-lems, but the performance in the last several years has progressively improved. Thus, for cooperatives to reach the goal set by the government reevaluation, expansion of the present cooperative programs is urgently needed. The basic thrust of this thesis is to outline applied research procedures including data needs, to use in attaining the general economic goals of cooperatives engaged in marketing activities

Household Constraints on Schooling by Gender: Empirical Evidence from Ethiopia

Using data collected during school-based surveys in two regions in Ethiopia, bivariate and multivariate analysis has been carried out to identify some of the important constraints to primary schooling. Problems in obtaining a representative sample of children not in school for this type of analysis are identified, and allowances are made for these problems, where possible. The results provide some evidence that well-nourished children from wealthier households whose mother and father are literate are more likely to attend and complete primary school. Furthermore, starting school at the official starting age of seven years and not repeating a grade increases the chances of completion. For children living within the vicinity of the school, opportunity costs do not appear to have a significant impact on the probability of attending or completing school, although girls in and out of school have a heavier work burden, relative to boys. Whilst similar factors are found to influence the probability of both boys and girls attending and completing school in the sample, their impact on girls is greater – undernourished girls from households lacking possessions, whose parents are illiterate, are 20 per cent less likely to attend school and 16 per cent less likely to complete school compared to a boy with these characteristics. Starting school above the official age and repeating a grade are also shown to reduce the chances of girls completing school by a slightly greater amount than boys. Statistical analyses of the kind used in this paper are not able to control adequately for cultural constraints to schooling, although these are recognised as potentially providing an additional important explanation for the gender gap

Assessment of factors related to caregivers and children on the IMCI program outcomes in Baghdad City in 2021

Background: The implementation of the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) program has led to enhancement in outcomes for many treatable childhood diseases. This study aims to assess how implementing IMCI affects child mortality and morbidity in Iraq. Methods: A cross-sectional study spanning from January to December 2021 was carried out at primary healthcare centers (PHCCs) with IMCI units in Baghdad, Iraq. Using a lottery sampling method, 40 PHCCs were randomly chosen from a total of 235 centers across both sides of the city. A universal sampling technique was adopted to select all children attending these PHCCs regularly. With a p-value below 5%, multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the significant independent predictors at a 95% confidence interval. Results: The majority of caregivers were mothers (97.8%), aged 20 to 30 years (75.8%), and housewives (59.2%). Sixty percent of children (6 to 35 months) had normal anthropometric measurements. Bottle feeding was common (44.2%), and most children had a normal neonatal history (82.9%). In bivariate analysis, the severity of illness, severe cases of diarrhea, and acute respiratory infection (ARI) showed significant associations with worsened or not improved outcomes (χ2 = 18.900, p < 0.001; χ2 = 6.265, p= 0.016; and χ2 = 7.549, p= 0.003, respectively). However, multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that mild and moderate illness severity (OR = 10.634, 95% CI: 6.985 to 16.192, p < 0.001), strict breastfeeding (OR = 3.307, 95% CI: 1.703 to 6.421, p < 0.001), and completing treatment at home (OR = 6.190, 95% CI: 4.115 to 9.311, p < 0.001) significantly improved outcomes through IMCI services. Conclusion: Severe illness, especially in diarrhea and ARI, correlates with poorer outcomes. Conversely, exclusive breastfeeding, prompt medical attention within a day of illness onset, and completing home treatment are associated with improved outcomes