The environmental impact of cultural change: palynological and quantitative land cover reconstructions for the last two millennia in northern Poland

This paper presents the first quantitative past land cover reconstructions for northern Poland using the Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm (LRA), interpreted alongside traditional percentage pollen data and historical sources. These data are used to evaluate the impact of cultural change on past vegetation and land-use in northern Poland during the last 2000 years. Vegetation change and land-use are apparent corresponding to the late Roman Iron Age (1st to 3rd centuries), Migration Period (4th–7th centuries), early Medieval (8th to early-13th centuries) and late medieval (early-13th to mid-15th centuries). The Roman Iron Age is characterised by significant land cover estimates for meadowland, likely part of a broad spectrum agricultural strategy. Widespread depopulation and woodland regrowth characterise the Migration Period, followed by the progressive clearance of woodland from the 7th/8th centuries corresponding to Slavic colonisation. Polish control of the region from the mid-10th century is accompanied by intensification in agricultural land-use. However, archaeological evidence for increasing settlement instability during the 11th/12th centuries is not obviously apparent in the palynological data. This likely reflects the sporadic nature and uneven impact of conflict, but also the difficulty in resolving short-term events in the palynological record. Significant woodland clearance occurred prior to the crusades, with the consequence that there is no clearly identifiable horizon of significant landscape change associated with the arrival of the Teutonic Order. However, large tracts of woodland survived in sparsely populated frontier zones and in areas with poor agricultural soils, managed as part of an extensive provisioning network covering the Teutonic Order's state

Re-thinking the ‘Green Revolution’ in the Mediterranean world

From the seventh century AD, successive Islamic polities were established around the Mediterranean. Historians have linked these caliphates with the so-called ‘Islamic Green Revolution’—the introduction of new crops and agricultural practices that transformed the economies of regions under Muslim rule. Increasingly, archaeological studies have problematised this largely text-based model of agrarian innovation, yet much of this research remains regionally and methodologically siloed. Focusing on the Western Mediterranean, the authors offer a theoretically informed, integrated environmental archaeology approach through which to contextualise the ecological impact of the Arab-Berber conquests. Its future application will allow a fuller evaluation of the scale, range and significance of agricultural innovations during the ‘medieval millennium’

The cultural roles of perforated fish vertebrae in prehistoric and historic Europe

This paper provides a new synthesis of perforated fish vertebrae in prehistoric and historic Europe, with a particular focus on Poland, within the broader context of Central and Eastern Europe. The earliest examples of such artefacts in Europe date from the Upper Palaeolithic, but compared to other ‘beads’ manufactured from animal bone, perforated fish vertebrae are rare. This paper examines the diachronic trends in the range of species that have been chosen for such objects, as well as their depositional contexts. Despite the wide range of freshwater and marine species exploited by people, only the vertebrae of a few species—especially pike and catfish—were selected for use as beads. There is a general shift from their deposition in funerary contexts in prehistoric European societies to their association as low-status objects associated with Christian private devotion in the post-conversion period. However, this may not reflect continuity in the use of fish vertebrae, with a shift in their symbolism after the conversion to Christianity, given the substantial chronological gaps in the archaeological record. This synthesis nonetheless provides a solid foundation for contextualising future archaeological finds of such artefacts

Evidence for the onset of mining activities during the 13th century in Poland using lead isotopes from lake sediment cores

Efforts to study how human activities have influenced the environment since the end of the Roman period to present day are lacking for North Central Europe. Here, we present new lead (Pb) isotope data determined from two sediment cores collected from ancient lakes spanning the last 1,500 years, located in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. Study sites at Radzyń Chełmiński and Rywałd were used to differentiate Pb sources. Radzyń Chełmiński is located in the vicinity of a late Medieval Teutonic Order castle and town, while Rywałd is situated within a relatively pristine area until the 19th century when it became used for agricultural purpose. Core samples were analyzed for Pb concentration and isotopes (206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb). Bayesian modelling was used to isolate the anthropogenic signal at each site over time. For both sites, Pb enrichment factors relative to titanium (Ti) and upper continental crust values range from 13 to 159. Lead isotopic ratios range from background, pre-anthropogenic local values (206Pb/207Pb =1.31±0.03‰, 208Pb/206Pb = 1.97±0.04‰) to anthropogenic values (SW Poland coal, ore, slag 206Pb/207Pb = 1.17±0.01‰, 208Pb/206Pb = 2.09±0.01‰). Modelled anthropogenic contribution varies greatly over time, ranging from 14 to 100%. At Radzyń Chełmiński, modeled anthropogenic Pb contribution and measured Pb concentration follow similar trends. However, at Rywałd, from around A.D.1000 to A.D. 1400 these profiles diverge significantly. Our new insights highlight different sources of Pb from the 12th century to present day: (1) short range agricultural activities from the town, and (2) long range mining activities. Additionally, prior to the 12th century, our data suggest continental anthropogenic activity possibly favored by a warmer climate

Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the castle of Margat (Qal'at al-Marqab), Syria

Margat Castle, located on the eastern coast of Syria, is an outstanding example of architecture from the Crusader Period, and the most important castle of the Hospitallers, who were one of the most famous Christian military orders during the medieval period. Excavations by the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission have been conducted with the aim of better understanding the history and material culture of this important part of Syrian heritage. Whilst large scale excavation and architectural analysis can provide an understanding of broad changes over the lifetime of the monument, high resolution studies of deposits are essential to understand their formation processes, and to test hypotheses suggested during excavation. In the refectory at Margat, a series of dark deposits overlain by a pale ‘ashy’ layer, were hypothesised to be the result of a large-scale burning event. In this study we aimed to test this hypothesis by conducting micromorphological and geochemical analysis of the sequence, the first application of microarchaeological techniques to medieval deposits in Syria. It was observed that the composition of the deposits relates to degradation of anthropogenic debris and constructional material through cycles of wetting/drying and microbial and faunal activity, rather than fire/destruction debris. These observations have clarified important changes in the castles' function associated with multiple phases of ownership

Re-thinking the ‘green revolution’ in the Mediterranean world

From the seventh century AD, successive Islamic polities were established around the Mediterranean. Historians have linked these caliphates with the so-called ‘Islamic Green Revolution’—the introduction of new crops and agricultural practices that transformed the economies of regions under Muslim rule. Increasingly, archaeological studies have problematised this largely text-based model of agrarian innovation, yet much of this research remains regionally and methodologically siloed. Focusing on the Western Mediterranean, the authors offer a theoretically informed, integrated environmental archaeology approach through which to contextualise the ecological impact of the Arab-Berber conquests. Its future application will allow a fuller evaluation of the scale, range and significance of agricultural innovations during the ‘medieval millennium’

Feeding the crusades: archaeobotany, animal husbandry and livestock alimentation on the Baltic frontier

The integrated results of micromorphology, plant macrofossil, pollen, phytolith, and non-pollen palynomorph analyses represent an important study of two thirteenth-century Teutonic Order castles at Karksi (Livonia), and Elbląg (Prussia). The research examines deposits that formed during the period of active crusading. At Karksi, the investigation of a midden and of the organic-rich sediment beneath allows the diachronic use of this area to be understood. Freshwater aquatic indicators are consistent with the occurrence of shallow stagnant water, as also suggested by a waterlaid pond sediment identified in thin-section. Coprophilous spore taxa suggest the use of the pond as a watering hole. Plant macrofossils from the midden represent a range of habitats, mostly from wet/damp areas, as well as pastures and meadows, and also woodlands. Fragments of millet are embedded within herbivore dung in thin-section showing the use of this grain as fodder. At Elbląg, parasite ova may derive from animal feces as they also occur in the dung observed in thin-section, and a range of coprophilous fungal spore taxa were extracted. The results reveal information about the range of livestock that the Teutonic Knights kept, whereabouts within the castles the animals were stabled, and what fodder was used

Andrew M. Watson’s legacy in al-Andalus: new perspectives on the Islamic Green Revolution

Este trabajo realiza una síntesis crítica del legado historiográfico de la propuesta de revolución agrícola que Andrew M. Watson planteó en su influyente obra «Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100». Su tesis principal sostiene que el mundo islámico medieval experimentó una serie de innovaciones agrícolas que transformaron radicalmente la economía y la sociedad de la época, un proceso que él denominó como la «revolución verde árabe». Esta teoría, si bien hoy en día es muy discutida, ha sido fundamental para comprender la evolución agraria y económica durante la Edad Media en el Mediterráneo, particularmente en al-Andalus. Tras examinar las críticas que ha recibido esta teoría, se plantea un estado de la cuestión en función de los datos arqueológicos más recientes disponibles, y se realizan algunas propuestas que integren nuevas perspectivas y métodos para continuar la investigación sobre los cambios agrícolas en el occidente mediterráneo.This paper presents a critical synthesis of the historiographical legacy of the agricultural revolution proposed by Andrew M. Watson in his influential work Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100. Watson’s main thesis argues that the medieval Islamic world underwent a series of agricultural innovations that radically transformed the economy and society of the time, a process he termed the “Arab Green Revolution.” While this theory is now widely debated, it has been fundamental in shaping our understanding of agrarian and economic developments during the Middle Ages in the Mediterranean, particularly in al-Andalus. After reviewing the main criticisms of Watson’s model, this study assesses the current state of research based on the latest archaeological data. It also proposes new perspectives and methodologies to further the study of agricultural changes in the western Mediterranean