Evaluating the case for greater use of private prosecutions in England and Wales for fraud offences

This paper considers the challenges and opportunities that exist in England and Wales for the use of private prosecutions for Fraud. It considers the need for sanctions against fraudsters: looks at the prosecution landscape as it has evolved, especially during the 21st century: considers the legal basis for private prosecution and gives a brief history of its extent. The advantages and disadvantages associated with private prosecution are considered and recommendations made on the changes needed before there could be significant developments in the use of private prosecutions

Confronting the “fraud bottleneck”: private sanctions for fraud and their implications for justice

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the ways in which contemporary organisations are imposing their own private sanctions on fraudsters. Design/methodology/approach – The research draws on primary data from interviews with counter fraud practitioners in the UK, secondary sources and case examples. Findings – Such developments have been stimulated, at least in part, by the broader limitations of the criminal justice system and in particular a “fraud bottleneck”. Alongside criminal sanctions, many examples are provided of organisations employing private prosecutions innovative forms of civil sanction and “pseudo state” sanctions, most commonly civil penalties comparable to fines. Research limitations/implications – Such changes could mark the beginning of the “rebirth of private prosecution” and the further expansion of private punishment. Growing private involvement in state sanctions and the development of private sanctions represents a risk to traditional guarantees of justice. There are differences in which comparable frauds are dealt with by corporate bodies and thus considerable inconsistency in sanctions imposed. In contrast with criminal justice measures, there is no rehabilitative element to private sanctions. More research is needed to assess the extent of such measures, and establish what is happening, the wider social implications, and whether greater state regulation is needed. Practical implications – Private sanctions for fraud are likely to continue to grow, as organisations pursue their own measures rather than relying on increasingly over-stretched criminal justice systems. Their emergence, extent and implications are not fully understood by researchers and therefore need much more research, consideration and debate. These private measures need to be more actively recognised by criminal justice policy-makers and analysts alongside the already substantial formal involvement of the private sector in punishment through prisons, electronic tagging and probation, for example. Such measures lack the checks and balances, and greater degree of consistency as laid out in sentencing guidelines, of the criminal justice system. In light of this, consideration needs to be given to greater state regulation of private sanctions for fraud. More also needs to be done to help fraudsters suffering problems such as debt or addiction to rebuild their lives. There is a strong case for measures beyond the criminal justice system to support such fraudsters to be created and publicly promoted. Originality/value – The findings are of relevance to criminal justice policy-makers, academics and counter fraud practitioners in the public and private sectors

Carbon and nitrogen dynamics of anthropogenically disturbed seagrass ecosystems

As atmospheric CO2 concentrations continue to rise, understanding factors that influence size and longevity of carbon (C) pools within coastal and marine ecosystems (i.e., “blue carbon”) is critical. In 2013, the global average atmospheric CO2 concentration reached 396 ppm, which was the highest recorded level in the last 800,000 years. Recent research acknowledges the importance of “blue carbon” in the global C cycle, finding that these ecosystems capture up to 70% of organic C in the marine realm, rendering them one of the most efficient C sinks on the planet. Specifically, seagrass ecosystems are critically important to the global C cycle, and yet they are the least studied blue C ecosystem. Studies assessing C status and potential response to disturbances are essential for governing agencies who aim to develop management strategies to conserve and restore critical seagrass ecosystems. This research aims to fill this knowledge gap by quantifying C and nitrogen (N) stocks and fluxes in turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum, Banks and Sol. ex K. D. Koenig, 1805) meadows in the Lower Laguna Madre of South Texas, which have been experimentally subjected to anthropogenic disturbance from boat propeller scars. Soil and vegetation C and N pools within disturbed and nearby undisturbed areas will be estimated to determine the rate of post-disturbance changes of the historically sequestered C. I hypothesize that disturbed areas will show an increased rate of C loss from soils and coincident reduction of sequestered C and N, likely due to both erosion and microbial breakdown, and that regrowth of seagrass in these areas will be insufficient to return disturbed seagrass beds to pre-disturbance C levels. This study aims to provide the information needed to strike a balance between the growing population pressures that seagrasses face with the important ecological role of seagrass ecosystems to the global C cycle

Direct Observations of the Ionizing Star in the UC HII Region G29.96-0.02: A Strong Constraint on the Stellar Birth Line for Massive Stars

We have observed the ultracompact HII region G29.96-0.02 in the near infrared J, H, and K bands and in the Br-gamma line. By comparison with radio observations, we determine that the extinction to the nebula is AK = 2.14 with a 3 sigma uncertainty of 0.25. We identify the ionizing star and determine its intrinsic K magnitude. The star does not have an infrared excess and so appears to be no longer accreting. The K magnitude and the bolometric luminosity allow us to place limits on the location of the ionizing star in the HR diagram. The 3 sigma upper limit on the effective temperature of the ionizing star is 42500 K. We favor a luminosity appropriate for star with a mass in excess of about 60 solar masses. The limit on the temperature and luminosity exclude stars on the ZAMS and stars within 10^6 yr of the ZAMS. Since the age of the UC HII region is estimated to be only about 10^5 yr, we suggest that this is direct evidence that the stellar birth line for massive stars at twice solar metallicity must be significantly redder than the ZAMS.Comment: 42 pages; LaTex; 11 Postscript figures; accepted for publication in Ap

Rapid Decline in HCV Incidence among People Who Inject Drugs Associated with National Scale-Up in Coverage of a Combination of Harm Reduction Interventions

BACKGROUND: Government policy has precipitated recent changes in the provision of harm reduction interventions - injecting equipment provision (IEP) and opiate substitution therapy (OST) - for people who inject drugs (PWID) in Scotland. We sought to examine the potential impact of these changes on hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission among PWID. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We used a framework to triangulate different types of evidence: 'group-level/ecological' and 'individual-level'. Evidence was primarily generated from bio-behavioural cross-sectional surveys of PWID, undertaken during 2008-2012. Individuals in the window period (1-2 months) where the virus is present, but antibodies have not yet been formed, were considered to have recent infection. The survey data were supplemented with service data on the provision of injecting equipment and OST. Ecological analyses examined changes in intervention provision, self-reported intervention uptake, self-reported risk behaviour and HCV incidence; individual-level analyses investigated relationships within the pooled survey data. Nearly 8,000 PWID were recruited in the surveys. We observed a decline in HCV incidence, per 100 person-years, from 13.6 (95% CI: 8.1-20.1) in 2008-09 to 7.3 (3.0-12.9) in 2011-12; a period during which increases in the coverage of OST and IEP, and decreases in the frequency of injecting and sharing of injecting equipment, were observed. Individual-level evidence demonstrated that combined high coverage of needles/syringes and OST were associated with reduced risk of recent HCV in analyses that were unweighted (AOR 0.29, 95%CI 0.11-0.74) and weighted for frequency of injecting (AORw 0.05, 95%CI 0.01-0.18). We estimate the combination of harm reduction interventions may have averted 1400 new HCV infections during 2008-2012. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to demonstrate that impressive reductions in HCV incidence can be achieved among PWID over a relatively short time period through high coverage of a combination of interventions

Identification of Novel <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i> Proteasome Inhibitors Using a Luminescence-Based High-Throughput Screening Assay

Chagas' disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a potentially life-threatening condition that has become a global issue. Current treatment is limited to two medicines that require prolonged dosing and are associated with multiple side effects, which often lead to treatment discontinuation and failure. One way to address these shortcomings is through target-based drug discovery on validated T. cruzi protein targets. One such target is the proteasome, which plays a crucial role in protein degradation and turnover through chymotrypsin-, trypsin-, and caspase-like catalytic activities. In order to initiate a proteasome drug discovery program, we isolated proteasomes from T. cruzi epimastigotes and characterized their activity using a commercially available glow-like luminescence-based assay. We developed a high-throughput biochemical assay for the chymotrypsin-like activity of the T. cruzi proteasome, which was found to be sensitive, specific, and robust but prone to luminescence technology interference. To mitigate this, we also developed a counterscreen assay that identifies potential interferers at the levels of both the luciferase enzyme reporter and the mechanism responsible for a glow-like response. Interestingly, we also found that the peptide substrate for chymotrypsin-like proteasome activity was not specific and was likely partially turned over by other catalytic sites of the protein. Finally, we utilized these biochemical tools to screen 18,098 compounds, exploring diverse drug-like chemical space, which allowed us to identify 39 hits that were active in the primary screening assay and inactive in the counterscreen assay. </p

Association between universal hepatitis B prison vaccination, vaccine uptake and hepatitis B infection among people who inject drugs

Background and Aims: In Scotland, Hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination for all prisoners was introduced in 1999; here, we examine the impact of this programme among people who inject drugs (PWID) in the community. This study aimed to compare rates of HBV vaccine uptake before and after implementation of the prison programme and to estimate the determinants of vaccine uptake, the levels of ever/current HBV infection and the associations between vaccine uptake and ever/current HBV infection.Design: Data collected via serial cross-sectional surveys were used to compare the proportion who reported being vaccinated over time. For the 2013-14 survey, rates of ever/current HBV infection were calculated and the associations between vaccine uptake and ever/current HBV infection were examined using logistic regression.Setting: Services providing injecting equipment and drug treatment, and street sites, in Glasgow (1993-2002) and across Scotland (2008-2014).Participants: More than 10,000 PWID in total were recruited in the surveys.Measurements: Participants completed a questionnaire (all years) to ascertain self-reported vaccine uptake and provided a blood spot (in 2013-14), tested for HBV core antibodies (anti-HBc) and surface antigen (HBsAg).Findings: Among recent-onset PWID in Glasgow, vaccine uptake increased from 16-20% in 1993-99 to 52-59% in 2001-2014 (p&lt;0.001). Among all PWID in Scotland, uptake increased further from 71% in 2008-09 to 77% in 2013-14 (p&lt;0.001) and was associated with incarceration (adjusted odds ratio 2·91, 95% CI 2·23-3·79). The prevalence of anti-HBc and HBsAg in Scotland was 2·6% and 0·3%, respectively, among PWID who had commenced injecting in the decade since the programme's introduction. Vaccination was associated with reduced odds of ever (0·60, 0·37-0·97) and current (0·40, 0·16-0·97) HBV infection.Conclusions: In Scotland, uptake of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination among people who inject drugs (PWID) in the community has increased since the 1999 introduction of universal prison vaccination, and current levels of HBV infection among PWID are low compared with other European countries.</p

Re-evaluation of Seed Transmission of Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. nebraskensis in Zea mays

The spread of Goss’s bacterial wilt and leaf blight of corn (Zea mays), caused by Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. nebraskensis, to a wider geographic range in the early 2000s compared with the late 1960s has generated concern about the possible role of seed transmission in long-distance spread. The objectives of this research were: (1) to determine the percentage of seed infection found in seed harvested from inoculated and noninoculated plants of hybrids that varied in resistance to Goss’s wilt; and (2) to estimate the seed transmission rate from these infected seed lots. The greatest percent seed infection was detected in seed from inoculated plants of the most susceptible hybrid and the least in seed from the most resistant hybrid. Seed lots with seed infection that ranged from 3.6 to 37.0% were planted in three field and three greenhouse trials. A total of 12 seed transmission events (Goss’s wilt symptomatic seedlings) were identified among 241,850 plants examined, for a seed transmission rate of 0.005%. When the seed transmission rate was recalculated to consider only the infected seed portion of each seed lot, the rate increased to 0.040% (12 events from 30,088 potentially infected plants). Based on the low seed transmission rate observed and previous research on disease spread from a point source, it seems unlikely that seed transmission could introduce enough inoculum to create a serious disease outbreak in a single growing season. However, risk of seed transmission is relevant for phytosanitary restrictions and preventing the introduction of the pathogen to new areas. To date, Goss’s wilt has not been detected outside North America, and while the risk of seed transmission is very low, the risk is not zero. Fortunately, the presence of C. michiganensis subsp. nebraskensis in corn seed is readily detectable by established seed health testing methods