Overtraining and exercise motivation: A research prospectus

The problems of exercise overtraining has recently become one of great interest to professionals in the field of human performance assessment. Quite obviously, the ultimate goal of the training process is to improve physical performance. However, excessive training can result in the opposite effect, that is, a performance decline and an impairment in the functional work capacity of the body. Research indicates that both psychological as well as physiological disturbances are quite common in overtrained individuals. For example, psychological changes include increased levels of depression, fatigue, and a lack of motivation. Similarly, impairment of the physiological function of the cardiovascular, metabolic, and endocrine systems also have been found. Some similarities may be found in the psychological and physiological states of crew members exposed to extended space flight and overtrained individuals. Therefore, the possibility exists that the crew members subjected to extended missions in space may develop overstressed or overtrained or both states during their flights. If such states do develop within the crew members, mission performance may be impaired. With these points as a background, the intent is to address potential research directions that NASA may consider viable and of a mutual interest to the researcher. A clear framework by which to begin discussion of research topics is needed; therefore, working definitions of overtraining and exercise motivation are presented. Subsequently, a proposed conceptional model of how exercise overtraining and motivation interact is presented. In support of the proposed model is a brief literature review of relevant areas. Potential research projects are presented and discussed

Characterization of the prolactin response to prolonged endurance exercise

This study characterized the blood prolactin responses to a prolonged endurance exercise bout in comparison to a resting, control period with no exercise. Six healthy exercise trained males completed both a 90 minute cycle exercise (70% VO2max) and a rest-control experimental session under standardized conditions. Blood samples were collected at – 15, 0 (exercise start), 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 (exercise end), 105, and 120 minute time points in the exercise and rest-control sessions. Prolactin concentrations were analyzed using radioimmunoassay procedures and tested for significant changes with ANOVA analysis. In the exercise session, prolactin concentrations from 45 to 120 minutes were significantly greater than the 15 minute concentration before exercise (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the exercise concentrations at 45 to 120 minutes were also significantly greater than the concentrations observed at the comparable rest-control time points (p < 0.01; approximately 300% elevation). The frequent blood sampling protocol used in this study clearly portrays the magnitude, timeline, and extend of the prolactin response to prolonged endurance activity. The mechanism and role for the prolactin response was not the focus of this study, but relative to the latter, it is speculated the hormonal change could pertain to signaling energy usage-status within the body and, or prompting immune system activation

Clinical management of immunosuppression in sportsmen-women: recommendations for sports medicine physicians and physiotherapists

In sportsmen and sportswomen the Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) can be a physically debilitating medical condition that results in these men and women being totally compromised in their capacity to perform and compete athletically. Many physiological systems are affected by the process of overtraining and the OTS; but one system in particular, the immune, is highly susceptible to degradation resulting in a reduction in overall health and performance. The aim of this paper is twofold; 1) to review the evidence-based proactive steps and actions to greatly reduce the risk of development of an infection or a compromised immune system in sportsmen; and 2) to recommend the course of action for clinicians when they are dealing with an sportsmen and women displaying overt signs of an infection and, or inflammation. Based upon the evidence reviewed-presented herewithin, it can be concluded that it is essential for clinicians to take practical preventative and management steps – actions with sportsmen-women involved in intensive exercise training in order to help preserve a healthy and robust immune system

Comparison of the personality traits of male and female BASE jumpers

BASE jumping is an extreme adventure sport which consists of jumping from a fixed object with specially adapted parachutes. A few studies of the personality of BASE jumpers have been conducted, but little is known about how the women in this sport compare to the men. The purpose of this study is to compare the personality traits among a sample of men and women who are experienced BASE jumpers, as this provides an interesting and important opportunity to better understand the motivation for extreme sports. Eighty-three participants completed the Temperament and Character Inventory the day before the jump at the New River Gorge Bridge Day BASE Jumping event, West Virginia, United States. The sample included 64 men and 19 women. Results show that men and women BASE jumpers shared similar personality traits both in terms of temperament and character, except for the character trait of cooperativeness on which women scored higher than men. This suggests that the basic drive for participation in extreme sports is self-regulation of personal emotional drives and needs for self-actualization, rather than to oppose social pressure or cultural bias against female participation. These findings are discussed in relation with other studies conducted among extreme athletes and in terms of congruence between personality and activity

Hormonal status, creatine kinase and soccer: a need for research

Soccer is a physically demanding sport in which muscular damage and trauma are frequent occurrences. These occurrences are especially true for those athletes involved in top-division clubs at national or international levels. Many factors may come into play when determining the degree of muscular damage that may occur during a soccer match, such as intensity of physical participation, environmental conditions, skill level, prior level of rest, and aggressiveness of the teams involved in the match

The Immune System and Overtraining in Athletes: Clinical Implications

Sažetak The primary objective of this review is to provide an overview of how overtraining and the overtraining syndrome (OTS) affect the immune system of athletes. A secondary objective is to provide sports medicine clinicians with guidance as to how best to prevent and/or treat some of the health consequences of overtraining and the OTS as related to the development of a compromised immune system associated with exercise training. The OTS is a physically debilitating condition that results in athletes being totally compromised in their capacity to perform and compete. Many physiological systems are affected by the process of overtraining and the OTS; but one system in particular, the immune, is highly susceptible to degradation resulting in a reduction in overall health and performance. Monitoring of an athlete’s exercise training load and other life stresses is critical to the determination of when their training regimen may be excessive, thereby increasing the risk of OTS developing. Taking steps to mitigate prolonged exposure to extreme stress (training + life or otherwise) in athletes as well as promoting a healthy immune system can significantly aid in the advancement of an athlete’s training regimen progression and ultimate physical performance and overall health. In this light, this review provides approaches to aid sports medicine clinicians in promoting a healthy immune system in athletes

Microhabitat Preferences of a Small Mammal Assemblage in Canadian County, Oklahoma

We  conducted a small mammal ecological study at John Nichols Scout Ranch in Southeastern Canadian County, Oklahoma, during the summers of 2013 and 2014. Microhabitat preferences of Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Neotoma floridana, and Sigmodon hispidus were determined using species’ presence/absence and 60 habitat variables at 10 randomly selected plots. These data were subjected to principle components analysis and niche overlap. Peromyscus leucopus and N. floridana occupy similar woodland areas, featuring high degrees of litter and overhang canopy, as well as rocky outcrops. Peromyscus maniculatus was associated with areas of annual, barren, shrub, and tree coverage, with adjacent habitat heterogeneity—an edge. Sigmodon hispidus was found in open grasslands with homogeneous adjacent habitat. Peromyscus leucopus and N. floridana had the highest degree of niche overlap, while P. maniculatus had a smaller overlap with these species. Sigmodon hispidus had the lowest degree of niche overlap among all studied species, indicating high habitat specificity. ©2015 Oklahoma Academy of Scienc

Imuni sustav i prekomjeran trening kod športaša: kliničke implikacije

The primary objective of this review is to provide an overview of how overtraining and the overtraining syndrome (OTS) affect the immune system of athletes. A secondary objective is to provide sports medicine clinicians with guidance as to how best to prevent and/or treat some of the health consequences of overtraining and the OTS as related to the development of a compromised immune system associated with exercise training. The OTS is a physically debilitating condition that results in athletes being totally compromised in their capacity to perform and compete. Many physiological systems are affected by the process of overtraining and the OTS; but one system in particular, the immune, is highly susceptible to degradation resulting in a reduction in overall health and performance. Monitoring of an athlete’s exercise training load and other life stresses is critical to the determination of when their training regimen may be excessive, thereby increasing the risk of OTS developing. Taking steps to mitigate prolonged exposure to extreme stress (training + life or otherwise) in athletes as well as promoting a healthy immune system can significantly aid in the advancement of an athlete’s training regimen progression and ultimate physical performance and overall health. In this light, this review provides approaches to aid sports medicine clinicians in promoting a healthy immune system in athletes.Primarni cilj ovoga rada je dati pregled načina na koje prekomjeran trening i sindrom prekomjernog treninga utječu na imuni sustav športaša. Sekundarni cilj je pružiti kliničarima koji se bave športskom medicinom smjernice kako najučinkovitije spriječiti i/ili liječiti neke od zdravstvenih posljedica prekomjernog treninga i sindroma prekomjernog treninga u odnosu na razvoj poremećaja imunog sustava udruženih s treningom. Sindrom prekomjernog treninga je stanje onemoćalosti koje kod športaša potpuno onemogućava športske aktivnosti i natjecanje. Proces prekomjernog treninga i sindroma prekomjernog treninga utječe na mnoge fiziološke sustave, no jedan od tih sustava, tj. imuni sustav, osobito je osjetljiv na te utjecaje, što dovodi do poremećaja općeg zdravstvenog stanja i smanjene sposobnosti za športske aktivnosti. Ključno je pratiti opterećenje treningom i drugim životnim stresnim situacijama kod pojedinog športaša kako bi se utvrdilo kad je režim treniranja možda pretjeran pa postoji opasnost od razvoja sindroma prekomjernog treninga. Poduzimanjem mjera za ublažavanje izloženosti krajnjem stresu (trening + životne situacije ili drugo) kod športaša te podržavanjem zdravog imunog sustava može se značajno pomoći u promicanju progresivnog režima treniranja i krajnje fizičke učinkovitosti, kao i zdravlja općenito. U tom smislu ovaj pregled upućuje kako pomoći kliničarima koji se bave športskom medicinom u promicanju zdravog imunog sustava kod športaša

Testosterone Responses to Intensive, Prolonged Endurance Exercise in Women

OBJECTIVE: To examine the response of testosterone in women to an intensive, prolonged endurance exercise bout that mimicked a competitive event. METHODS: Ten healthy eumenorrheic women ran to exhaustion at ~100% of their ventilatory threshold in their follicular menstrual cycle phase. Testosterone measures were assessed pre-exercise, immediately, 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, and 24 h post-exercise. RESULTS: At exhaustion (75.1 ± 7.0 min), total (56%), free (36%), and bioavailable testosterone (50%) were increased from pre-exercise values (p< 0.05). At 24 h post-exercise, these measures were decreased from pre-exercise values (-21%, -31%, -18%, respectively; p < 0.05). Effect sizes for these changes ranged from medium to large in magnitude. CONCLUSION: Testosterone was elevated in the early recovery period following exhaustive endurance exercise but was reduced by 24 h afterward. These outcomes are comparable to responses seen in men when sex-based concentration differences are considered

Hormony tarczycy a wzajemne relacje między stężeniem kortyzolu i prolaktyny: wpływ długotrwałego, wyczerpującego wysiłku fizycznego

Background: This study examined how prolonged, exhaustive exercise affects: (1) thyroid hormones, and (2) the interrelationship of cortisol and prolactin responses to such exercise on thyroid hormones. Material and methods: Male subjects performed a treadmill run at their individual ventilatory threshold until exhaustion. Blood samples were taken before exercise at rest, baseline (BL), at exhaustion (EXH), 30-60-90-minutes into recovery (30 mR, 60 mR, 90 mR), and 24-hours into recovery from exercise (24 hR). Blood was analyzed for free T3 (fT3), free T4 (fT4), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), cortisol and prolactin. Results: ANOVA analysis revealed that at EXH all hormones were increased (p < 0.01) from BL levels. At 30 mR and 60 mR the thyroid hormones had decreased and returned to BL levels; however, cortisol and prolactin remained significantly increased (p < 0.05). At 90 mR all hormones were not different from BL levels. By 24 hR, cortisol, fT3 and TSH were decreased from BL (p < 0.05). Correlations revealed EXH cortisol responses were related to the 24 hR TSH responses (rs = -0.69, p < 0.01). In addition, EXH cortisol and 24 hR fT3 responses were related (rs = -0.51, p < 0.02). Furthermore, the EXH prolactin and TSH responses were related (rs = +0.56, p < 0.01), and the 30 mR prolactin responses were related to the EXH TSH responses (rs = +0.43, p < 0.05). Conclusions: Exhaustive exercise; (1) decreases select thyroid hormones by 24 hours into recovery, (2) cortisol responses are inversely related to these thyroid reductions, and (3) prolactin responses (increases) are directly related to TSH changes.Wstęp: Celem niniejszego badania było określenie wpływu długotrwałego, wyczerpującego wysiłku fizycznego na: (1) stężenia wybranych hormonów tarczycy i (2) współzależności między wydzielaniem kortyzolu i prolaktyny w odpowiedzi na ćwiczenia a stężeniami hormonów tarczycy. Materiał i metody: Zdrowe, wytrenowane osoby (n = 22) ćwiczyły na bieżni pochyłej ze zwykłą dla siebie intensywnością określona na podstawie progu wentylacyjnego do momentu, kiedy poczuły zmęczenie (84,8 &#177; 3,8 min). Próbki krwi pobrano przed rozpoczęciem ćwiczeń, kiedy badane osoby były wypoczęte (BL, baseline), a następnie w momencie, gdy nastąpiło wyczerpanie po wysiłku (EXH, exhanstion), po 30-, 60-, i 90-minutowym odpoczynku i 24 godziny po zakończeniu ćwiczeń (24 hR). Oznaczono stężenia wolnej T3 (fT3), wolnej T4 (fT4), hormonu tyreotropowego (TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone), prolaktyny i kortyzolu. Wyniki: W analizie ANOVA dla powtarzalnych pomiarów wykazano, że stężenia wszystkich hormonów były podwyższone w fazie EXH (p < 0,01) w stosunku do wartości wyjściowych (BL, baseline). Po 30- i 60-minutowym odpoczynku stężenia hormonów tarczycy zmniejszyły się do wartości wyjściowych (p > 0,05); jednak stężenia kortyzolu i prolaktyny nadal były wyższe niż przed wysiłkiem (BL) (p < 0,05). Po upływie 90 minut stężenia żadnego z hormonów nie różniły się istotnie (p > 0,05) od poziomu BL. Po 24 godzinach odpoczynku (24 hR) stężenia kortyzolu, fT3 i TSH były niższe niż wartości BL (p < 0,05). Ocena korelacji wykazała zależność między stężeniem kortyzolu w fazie zmęczenia po wysiłku a stężeniem TSH 24 po wysiłku (rs = -0,69, p < 0,01). Stężenie kortyzolu w fazie EXH i stężenie fT3 po 24 godzinach były związane w sposób statystycznie istotny (rs = -0,51, p < 0,02). Ponadto stwierdzono wzajemną zależność między stężeniem prolaktyny i TSH w fazie EXH (rs = 0,56, p < 0,01), a stężenie prolaktyny po 30 minutach odpoczynku było związane ze stężeniem TSH w fazie EXH (rs = 0,43, p < 0,05). Wnioski: Wyniki uzyskane w niniejszym badaniu sugerują, że po wyczerpujących ćwiczeniach (1) następuje zmniejszenie wydzielania wybranych hormonów tarczycy po 24 godzinach wypoczynku, a zmiany te są zależne od stężenia kortyzolu, (2) zwiększenie stężenia prolaktyny spowodowane wysiłkiem jest proporcjonalne do wzrostu wydzielania TSH