Endogenous antigen processing drives the primary CD4+ T cell response to influenza.

By convention, CD4+ T lymphocytes recognize foreign and self peptides derived from internalized antigens in combination with major histocompatibility complex class II molecules. Alternative pathways of epitope production have been identified, but their contributions to host defense have not been established. We show here in a mouse infection model that the CD4+ T cell response to influenza, critical for durable protection from the virus, is driven principally by unconventional processing of antigen synthesized within the infected antigen-presenting cell, not by classical processing of endocytosed virions or material from infected cells. Investigation of the cellular components involved, including the H2-M molecular chaperone, the proteasome and γ-interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase revealed considerable heterogeneity in the generation of individual epitopes, an arrangement that ensures peptide diversity and broad CD4+ T cell engagement. These results could fundamentally revise strategies for rational vaccine design and may lead to key insights into the induction of autoimmune and anti-tumor responses

What constitutes responsiveness of physicians: A qualitative study in rural Bangladesh

Responsiveness entails the social actions by health providers to meet the legitimate expectations of patients. It plays a critical role in ensuring continuity and effectiveness of care within people centered health systems. Given the lack of contextualized research on responsiveness, we qualitatively explored the perceptions of outpatient users and providers regarding what constitute responsiveness in rural Bangladesh. An exploratory study was undertaken in Chuadanga, a southwestern Bangladeshi District, involving in-depth interviews of physicians (n = 17) and users (n = 7), focus group discussions with users (n = 4), and observations of patient provider interactions (three weeks). Analysis was guided by a conceptual framework of responsiveness, which includes friendliness, respecting, informing and guiding, gaining trust and optimizing benefits. In terms of friendliness, patients expected physicians to greet them before starting consultations; even though physicians considered this unusual. Patients also expected physicians to hold social talks during consultations, which was uncommon. With regards to respect patients expected physicians to refrain from disrespecting them in various ways; but also by showing respect explicitly. Patients also had expectations related to informing and guiding: they desired explanation on at least the diagnosis, seriousness of illness, treatment and preventive steps. In gaining trust, patients expected that physicians would refrain from illegal or unethical activities related to patients, e.g., demanding money against free services, bringing patients in own private clinics by brokers (dalals), colluding with diagnostic centers, accepting gifts from pharmaceutical representatives. In terms of optimizing benefits: patients expected that physicians should be financially sensitive and consider individual need of patients. There were multiple dimensions of responsiveness- for some, stakeholders had a consensus; context was an important factor to understand them. This being an exploratory study, further research is recommended to validate the nuances of the findings. It can be a guideline for responsiveness practices, and a tipping point for future research

Intestinal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: How does its frequency compare with that of nasal carriage and what is its clinical impact?

The bacterial species Staphylococcus aureus, including its methicillin-resistant variant (MRSA), finds its primary ecological niche in the human nose, but is also able to colonize the intestines and the perineal region. Intestinal carriage has not been widely investigated despite its potential clinical impact. This review summarizes literature on the topic and sketches the current state of affairs from a microbiological and infectious diseases' perspective. Major findings are that the average reported detection rate of intestinal carriage in healthy individuals and patients is 20% for S. aureus and 9% for MRSA, which is approximately half of that for nasal carriage. Nasal carriage seems to predispose to intestinal carriage, but sole intestinal carriage occurs relatively frequently and is observed in 1 out of 3 intestinal carriers, which provides a rationale to include intestinal screening for surveillance or in outbreak settings. Colonization of the intestinal tract with S. aureus at a young age occurs at a high frequency and may affect the host's immune system. The frequency of intestinal carriage is generally underestimated and may significantly contribute to bacterial dissemination and subsequent risk of infections. Whether intestinal rather than nasal S. aureus carriage is a primary predictor for infections is still ill-defined

Study on correlation of foot length with stature

Abstract Background and aims : Stature is the height of a person in the upright posture. There are lot of variations in estimating stature from limb measurements among people of different region and race. Hence there is a need to carryout more studies on population of different regions so that method of stature estimation becomes more reliable. The aim of study was to fmd out the correlation between foot length and height of an individual and to derive regression formulae to estimate the height from the foot length in the study population. Materials and methods : This study was conducted among 308 healthy students aged between 18-20 years. Foot length and height was measured. The measurements were made by using standard anthropometric instruments to the nearest millimeter. The data obtained was analysed statistically and attempt was made to findout correlation and to derive a regression formula between foot length and height of an individual. Results: The values of all the parameters in case of male were higher than females. The sex differences in these parameters showed statistical significance. A strong positive correlation between height and foot length of individuals was found Conclusion: Foot length is a useful parameter in stature estimation. Our findings suggest that the relationship between stature and foot length is of practical use for anatomical, medico legal, anthropological, archaeological and other related studies.</jats:p

Arm Span as Predictor of Stature among Indian Population

ABSTRACT Stature can be easily measured and widely used as anthropometric parameter in clinical medicine and in field of scientific research, such as calculation of body mass index, basal metabolic rate, and Creatinine Height index and for assessing pulmonary function tests. Anthropometric parameters show variations in different populations according to sex, genetics, geography, race, religion, nutrition, and socioeconomic condition of local population. The sample size taken was 350 students. Study group involved 20-22yrs of age group, 163 were males and 187 females. Anthropometric measurements of armspan and standing height were conducted and recorded in centimetres scale nearing to 0.1cms. The relationships between body height and arm span were determined using correlation coefficients. The mean difference in south females is 2.5cm, north females is 2.5 cms while In south males it is 2.7cm and north males it is 3.0 cms.The relationships between body height and arm span are high and significant in the sample, regardless of sex. The high values of the regression coefficient signify that arm span significantly predicts body height in both sexes