Agroforestry for Climate Change Adaptation, Resilience Enhancement and Vulnerability Attenuation in Smallholder Farming Systems in Cameroon

The adverse impacts of climate variability and change are felt mostly by smallholder farmers and smallholder farming systems where rainfed agriculture is predominant. Continuous dependence on rain-fed agriculture has led to declining crop productivity and crop failure in most cases as weather patterns shift which is very problematic for crop growth. Agroforestry which is one of the climate-smart, environmentally benign and agroecological practices has been found to mitigate climate change adversities while fostering adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability especially in smallholder farming systems. However, in Cameroon, limited empirical research has been done to ascertain the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience enhancement and vulnerability attenuation. This paper which is based on an in-depth review of literature was undertaken to uncover what has been done so far in terms of empirical studies tackling the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience and vulnerability attenuation in Cameroon. It was found that most of the empirical studies have been carried out in one agroecological zone – the western highlands of Cameroon, showing that smallholder farmers adopt different agroforestry practices in the face of climate change with the most common being home gardens with livestock, home gardens without livestock, scattered trees on croplands, improved fallows, live fences/hedges and windbreaks, coffeebased agroforestry, cocoa-based agroforestry, apiculture-based agroforestry, fodder banks, and plantation crop-based agroforestry practices. These agroforestry practices provide a plethora of ecosystem services categorized into provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural which play an important role towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems. From the findings uncovered by this study, it is imperative for more empirical studies to be carried out in the other four agroecological zones of Cameroon where there is a paucity of information regarding the role played by agroforestry towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems

The Last Twenty-One Years of Landscape Management in the Forest-Savannah Transition Zone: Case of Ngoro Municipality in Cameroon

In recent decades, environmental challenges have increased with climate change, which is strongly linked to the pressure of human activities with a consequence on natural landscape change. Based on the forest-savannah transition zone of Cameroon, the aim of this study is to analyze the last twenty-one years management of the Ngoro municipality landscape by the government; and also, analyze the local people impact on these landscapes. The spatio-temporal dynamics of the Ngoro landscape was measured using two Landsat images (TM 2000 and OLI from 2021) downloaded free and analysed with ENVI software based to the supervised classification algorithm. The cartographic approach was combined with surveys conducted with 152 key informants through a questionnaire. Results revealed that, the natural forest cover has experienced a regressive dynamic over 21 years (2000–2021). Seven land cover classes were identified namely old forest, shrubland and grassland, bare soil/slash and burn areas, plantation/agroforestry systems, urban, water surface and croplands. Forests and savannah which are the natural landscape have decreased in the twenty-one years under study, at a rate of -165 ha/year and -525 ha/year respectively, while bare soil and slash and burn areas (+183 ha/year), and crop land (+229 ha/year) have increased. Concerning landscape management, in the twenty-one years under study, 8% of the area has been allocated as community forest. The remaining 92% that has not been allocated is managed by the community. The community established farms (44%), inherited their parents’ farms (37%), bought land (10%) or received land as a gift (8%). The Ngoro municipality with its High Conservation Value potentials, harbours several endangered species, requires further empirical studies that can help identify biodiversity hotspots which will be beneficial for conservation. There is also the need to integrate indigenous Cameroonian initiatives that enhance sustainable landscape management practices

Agroforestry for Climate Change Adaptation, Resilience Enhancement and Vulnerability Attenuation in Smallholder Farming Systems in Cameroon

The adverse impacts of climate variability and change are felt mostly by smallholder farmers and smallholder farming systems where rainfed agriculture is predominant. Continuous dependence on rain-fed agriculture has led to declining crop productivity and crop failure in most cases as weather patterns shift which is very problematic for crop growth. Agroforestry which is one of the climate-smart, environmentally benign and agroecological practices has been found to mitigate climate change adversities while fostering adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability especially in smallholder farming systems. However, in Cameroon, limited empirical research has been done to ascertain the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience enhancement and vulnerability attenuation. This paper which is based on an in-depth review of literature was undertaken to uncover what has been done so far in terms of empirical studies tackling the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience and vulnerability attenuation in Cameroon. It was found that most of the empirical studies have been carried out in one agroecological zone – the western highlands of Cameroon, showing that smallholder farmers adopt different agroforestry practices in the face of climate change with the most common being home gardens with livestock, home gardens without livestock, scattered trees on croplands, improved fallows, live fences/hedges and windbreaks, coffeebased agroforestry, cocoa-based agroforestry, apiculture-based agroforestry, fodder banks, and plantation crop-based agroforestry practices. These agroforestry practices provide a plethora of ecosystem services categorized into provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural which play an important role towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems. From the findings uncovered by this study, it is imperative for more empirical studies to be carried out in the other four agroecological zones of Cameroon where there is a paucity of information regarding the role played by agroforestry towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems.</jats:p

通过喀麦隆西北部农民耕作系统的农林实践，减轻脆弱性并建立对气候多变性和变化的复原力

气候变化现在被认为是人类面临的最大威胁之一。气候变化的破坏性影响对参与农业等依赖气候的部门的行为者来说是个坏兆头。促进减少脆弱性和提高复原力的可持续做法变得至关重要。正是在这一框架内，本研究考察了农林业实践对减轻喀麦隆小农耕作系统的脆弱性和提高对气候变化的适应性的贡献，特别是在喀麦隆西北部的梅扎姆省。收集的二级数据主要包括气候数据（温度和降雨量），而一级数据则是通过家庭调查、焦点小组、对专家的访谈以及对农民农林和非农林地块的清查来收集的。这些数据在SPSS 20、Excel 2007和STATA 13上使用描述性和推断性统计进行了分析。根据结果，小农户的看法和所分析的气候数据显示，在过去几十年里，气温上升，总降雨量减少。调查还发现，农民认为极端天气事件的反复发生（99%）和贫困（96%）是易受气候变化影响的主要因素。此外，家庭规模、家庭收入、户主年龄、信息获取和土地获取与农民对气候变化的脆弱性有很强的负因果关系（P<0.05），表明这些变量对降低农民的脆弱性有很强的倾向性。农民的主要农林做法是有动物的家庭菜园（53%）、有树木的田地（48%）和家庭菜园（44%）；归入农林系统的农林做法（有7种做法）是最主要的。结果还显示，五种农林实践（带牲口的家庭花园、树木覆盖的田地、牧场上的分散树木、基于咖啡的农林实践和Taungya）与农民对气候变化的脆弱性有很强的负因果关系（P<0.05），这意味着这些农林实践在缓解农民的脆弱性方面发挥了重要作用。研究还发现，四种农林实践（带动物的家庭园地、家庭园地、牧场上的零星树木和以咖啡为基础的农林实践）与农民对气候变化的复原力有很强的正因果关系（P<0.05），这表明这些农林实践在建立农民的复原力方面发挥了重要作用。这表明，农林实践在减轻小农耕作系统的脆弱性和建立其对气候变化的复原力方面发挥着重要作用。根据这项研究的结果，强烈建议将农林实践和系统作为可持续实践的主流，因为它们能够减轻农民对气候变化的脆弱性并增强他们的复原力。Der Klimawandel gilt heute als eine der größten Bedrohungen, denen die Menschheit ausgesetzt ist. Die verheerenden Auswirkungen des Klimawandels sind ein schlechtes Omen für die Akteure, die in klimabedingten Sektoren wie der Landwirtschaft tätig sind. Die Förderung nachhaltiger Praktiken, die die Anfälligkeit verringern und die Widerstandsfähigkeit erhöhen, wird von entscheidender Bedeutung. In diesem Zusammenhang untersuchte die vorliegende Studie den Beitrag von agroforstwirtschaftlichen Praktiken zur Verringerung der Anfälligkeit und zur Verbesserung der Widerstandsfähigkeit gegenüber dem Klimawandel in kleinbäuerlichen Systemen in Kamerun im Allgemeinen und im Departement Mezam im Nordwesten Kameruns im Besonderen. Während die erhobenen Sekundärdaten hauptsächlich Klimadaten (Temperatur und Niederschlag) umfassten, wurden die Primärdaten durch Haushaltsbefragungen, Fokusgruppen, Interviews mit Ansprechpartnern und Bestandsaufnahmen auf den Agroforst- und Nicht-Agroforst-Parzellen der Bauern erhoben. Die Daten wurden mit SPSS 20, Excel 2007 und STATA 13 unter Verwendung von deskriptiver und inferenzieller Statistik analysiert. Den Ergebnissen zufolge zeigten die Wahrnehmungen der Kleinbauern und die analysierten Klimadaten einen Anstieg der Temperatur und eine Verringerung der Gesamtniederschlagsmenge in den letzten Jahrzehnten. Es wurde auch festgestellt, dass die Bauern die Wiederkehr extremer Wetterereignisse (99%) und Armut (96%) als Hauptfaktoren für die Anfälligkeit gegenüber dem Klimawandel wahrnahmen. Darüber hinaus hatten Haushaltsgröße, Haushaltseinkommen, Alter des Haushaltsvorstands, Zugang zu Informationen und Zugang zu Land einen starken negativen Kausalzusammenhang (p<0,05) mit der Anfälligkeit der Bauern für den Klimawandel, was zeigt, dass diese Variablen eine starke Neigung haben, die Anfälligkeit der Bauern zu verringern. Die wichtigsten agroforstwirtschaftlichen Praktiken der Bauern waren Hausgärten mit Tieren (53%), Felder mit Bäumen (48%) und Hausgärten (44%), wobei die agroforstwirtschaftlichen Praktiken, die als Agroforstsysteme klassifiziert wurden (mit 7 Praktiken), am dominantesten waren. Die Ergebnisse zeigten auch, dass fünf Agroforstpraktiken (Hausgärten mit Tieren, Felder mit Bäumen, Bäume auf Weiden, Kaffee-Agroforstpraktiken und Taungya) eine starke negative Ursache-Wirkungs-Beziehung (p<0,05) mit der Anfälligkeit der Bauern für den Klimawandel aufwiesen, was bedeutet, dass diese Agroforstpraktiken eine wichtige Rolle bei der Verringerung der Anfälligkeit der Bauern spielen. Es wurde auch festgestellt, dass vier Agroforstpraktiken (Hausgarten mit Tieren, Hausgärten, verstreute Bäume auf Weiden und Agroforstpraxis auf Kaffeebasis) eine starke positive Ursache-Wirkungs-Beziehung (p<0,05) mit der Widerstandsfähigkeit der Bauern gegenüber dem Klimawandel aufwiesen, was zeigt, dass diese Agroforstpraktiken eine wichtige Rolle bei der Stärkung der Widerstandsfähigkeit der Bauern spielen. All dies zeigt, dass agroforstwirtschaftliche Praktiken eine wichtige Rolle bei der Minderung der Anfälligkeit und der Stärkung der Widerstandsfähigkeit von kleinbäuerlichen Systemen spielen, die mit dem Klimawandel konfrontiert sind. Auf der Grundlage der Ergebnisse dieser Studie wird dringend empfohlen, Agroforstpraktiken und -systeme als nachhaltige Praktiken in den Mittelpunkt der Politik zu stellen, da sie die Anfälligkeit mindern und die Widerstandsfähigkeit der Bauern gegenüber dem Klimawandel erhöhen können.Climate variability and change is today one of the greatest existential threats facing humanity. The ravaging effects of this scourge spell doom for stakeholders involved in climate dependent sectors like agriculture. Promoting climate-smart practices that reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience becomes incumbent. It is within this framework that this study sought to assess the contributions of agroforestry practices towards the attenuation of vulnerability and the enhancement of resilience of smallholder farming systems in Cameroon in general and Mezam division, north western Cameroon in particular faced with climate variability and change. Both secondary and primary data were collected for the study. Secondary data collected included mainly climate data (temperature and rainfall). Primary data on its part was collected through household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and inventories on smallholder farmers’ agroforestry and non-agroforestry plots. Data collected was analyzed on SPSS 20, Excel 2007 and STATA 13 making use of descriptive and inferential statistics. From the results obtained, both smallholder farmers’ perceptions and analyzed climate data revealed an increase in temperature and a marked reduction in the total quantity of rainfall in recent decades. It was also found that smallholder farmers perceived recurrent extreme weather events (99%) and poverty (96%) as the main drivers of vulnerability to climate variability and change. Household size, age of household head, household income, access to information, and access to land had a significant negative causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and change demonstrating that these variables have a high propensity to reduce smallholder farmers’ vulnerability. The main agroforestry practices of smallholder farmers were home gardens with livestock (53%), trees on croplands (48%), and home gardens (44%); with agroforestry practices categorized under the agrosilvicultural agroforestry system (with 7 practices) being the most dominant. The findings equally revealed that five agroforestry practices (home garden with livestock, trees on croplands, trees on grazing lands, coffee-based agroforestry and Taungya) had a strong negative causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and change, which shows that these agroforestry practices play a major role towards reducing smallholder farmers’ vulnerability. It was also found that four agroforestry practices (home garden with livestock, home gardens, trees on grazing lands and coffee-based agroforestry) had a significant positive causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ resilience to climate variability and change, which proves that these agroforestry practices play a major role towards enhancing smallholder farmers’ resilience. Thus, agroforestry practices play a significant role towards reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience of smallholder farmers faced with climate variability and change. Based on the findings of this study, it is highly recommended that agroforestry practices and systems be integrated into the mainstream as a best practice owing to its ability to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to climate variability and change especially for smallholder farmers.El cambio climático se considera actualmente una de las mayores amenazas a las que se enfrenta la humanidad. Los efectos devastadores del cambio climático son un mal presagio para los agentes implicados en sectores dependientes del clima, como la agricultura. La promoción de prácticas sostenibles que reduzcan la vulnerabilidad y mejoren la resiliencia se convierte en algo esencial. En este marco, este estudio examinó las contribuciones de las prácticas agroforestales a la mitigación de la vulnerabilidad y la mejora de la resiliencia al cambio climático en los sistemas agrícolas de los pequeños agricultores de Camerún en general y del departamento de Mezam, en el noroeste del país, en particular. Mientras que los datos secundarios recogidos incluían principalmente datos climáticos (temperatura y precipitaciones), los datos primarios se recogieron a través de encuestas a los hogares, grupos de discusión, entrevistas con personas expertas e inventarios de las parcelas agroforestales y no agroforestales de los agricultores. Estos datos se analizaron en SPSS 20, Excel 2007 y STATA 13 utilizando estadísticas descriptivas e inferenciales. Según los resultados, las percepciones de los pequeños agricultores y los datos climáticos analizados revelaron un aumento de la temperatura y una reducción de las precipitaciones totales en las últimas décadas. También se constató que los agricultores percibían la recurrencia de fenómenos meteorológicos extremos (99%) y la pobreza (96%) como los principales factores de vulnerabilidad al cambio climático. Además, el tamaño del hogar, los ingresos del hogar, la edad del cabeza de familia, el acceso a la información y el acceso a la tierra tenían una fuerte relación causal negativa (p<0,05) con la vulnerabilidad de los agricultores al cambio climático, lo que demuestra que estas variables tienen una fuerte propensión a reducir la vulnerabilidad de los agricultores. Las principales prácticas agroforestales de los agricultores fueron los huertos domésticos con animales (53%), los campos con árboles (48%) y los huertos domésticos (44%); siendo las prácticas agroforestales clasificadas en sistemas agroforestales (con 7 prácticas) las más dominantes. Los resultados también revelaron que cinco prácticas agroforestales (huerto doméstico con animales, campos cubiertos de árboles, árboles dispersos en pastos, práctica agroforestal basada en el café y Taungya) tenían una fuerte relación causal negativa (p<0,05) con la vulnerabilidad de los agricultores al cambio climático, lo que significa que estas prácticas agroforestales desempeñan un importante papel en la mitigación de la vulnerabilidad de los agricultores. También se descubrió que cuatro prácticas agroforestales (huerto doméstico con animales, huertos domésticos, árboles dispersos en los pastos y práctica agroforestal basada en el café) tenían una fuerte relación causal positiva (p<0,05) con la resiliencia de los agricultores al cambio climático, lo que demuestra que estas prácticas agroforestales desempeñan un importante papel en el desarrollo de la resiliencia de los agricultores. Esto demuestra que las prácticas agroforestales desempeñan un papel importante en la mitigación de la vulnerabilidad y el aumento de la resiliencia de los sistemas agrícolas de los pequeños agricultores ante el cambio climático. Sobre la base de los resultados de este estudio, se recomienda encarecidamente que las prácticas y los sistemas agroforestales se incorporen como prácticas sostenibles debido a su capacidad para mitigar la vulnerabilidad y mejorar la resiliencia de los agricultores ante el cambio climático.Les changements climatiques est aujourd'hui considérés comme l'une des plus grandes menaces auxquelles l'humanité est confrontée. Les effets dévastateurs de ce fléau constituent un mauvais présage pour les acteurs impliqués dans les secteurs dépendant du climat tels que l'agriculture. Promouvoir des pratiques durables qui réduisent la vulnérabilité et améliorent la résilience devient essentielle. C’est dans ce cadre que s’est inscrite cet étude à travers l’examination des contributions des pratiques agroforestières à l’atténuation de la vulnérabilité et à l’amélioration de la résilience face aux changements climatiques, des systèmes de petites exploitations agricoles au Cameroun en général et du departement de la Mezam, nord-ouest du Cameroun en particulier. Si les données secondaires collectées comprenaient principalement des données climatiques (température et précipitations), les données primaires quant à elles ont été collectées grâce aux enquêtes auprès des ménages, les focus group, d’interviews des personnes ressources et d’inventaires sur des parcelles agroforestières et non-agroforestières des paysans. Ces données ont été analysées sur SPSS 20, Excel 2007 et STATA 13 en utilisant de statistiques descriptives et inférentielles. D'après les résultats obtenus, les perceptions des petits agriculteurs et les données climatiques analysées ont révélé une augmentation de la température et une réduction de la quantité totale de précipitations au cours des dernières décennies. Il a également été constaté que les paysans percevaient la récurrence des phénomènes météorologiques extrêmes (99%) et la pauvreté (96%) comme les principaux facteurs de vulnérabilité aux changements climatiques. De plus, la taille du ménage, le revenu du ménage, l’âge du chef de ménage, l’accès aux informations et l’accès à la terre avaient une forte relation de cause à effet négative (p<0,05) avec la vulnérabilité des paysans face aux changements climatiques, ce qui démontre que ces variables ont une forte propension à réduire la vulnérabilité des paysans. Les principales pratiques agroforestières des paysans étaient les jardins de case avec des animaux (53%), champs complantés d’arbres (48%) et des jardins de case (44%); les pratiques agroforestières classées sous les systèmes agrosylvicoles (avec 7 pratiques) étant les plus dominantes. Les résultats ont également révélé que cinq pratiques agroforestières (jardin de case avec des animaux, champs complantés d’arbres, arbres dispersés dans les pâturages, pratique agroforestière à base de café et Taungya) avaient une forte relation négative de cause à effet (p<0,05) avec la vulnérabilité des paysans face aux changements climatiques, ce qui signifie que ces pratiques agroforestières jouent un rôle important dans l'atténuation de la vulnérabilité des paysans. Il a également été constaté que quatre pratiques agroforestières (jardin de case avec des animaux, jardins de case, arbres dispersés dans les pâturages et pratique agroforestière à base de café) avaient une forte relation positive de cause à effet (p<0,05) avec la résilience des paysans face aux changements climatiques, ce qui démontre que ces pratiques agroforestières jouent un rôle important dans le renforcement de la résilience des paysans. Tout cela montre que les pratiques agroforestières jouent un rôle important dans l'atténuation de la vulnérabilité et le renforcement de la résilience des systèmes de petites exploitations agricoles confrontés aux changements climatiques. Sur la base des résultats de cette étude, il est vivement recommandé d’intégrer les pratiques et systèmes agroforestiers au centre des politiques en tant que pratiques durables en raison de leur capacité à atténuer la vulnérabilité et à améliorer la résilience des paysans face aux changements climatiques.Il cambiamento climatico è ora considerato una delle più grandi minacce che l'umanità deve affrontare. Gli effetti devastanti del cambiamento climatico sono un cattivo presagio per gli attori coinvolti nei settori dipendenti dal clima come l'agricoltura. La promozione di pratiche sostenibili che riducono la vulnerabilità e migliorano la resilienza diventa essenziale. È in questo quadro che questo studio ha esaminato i contributi delle pratiche agroforestali per mitigare la vulnerabilità e migliorare la resilienza al cambiamento climatico nei sistemi agricoli dei piccoli proprietari in Camerun in generale e nel dipartimento Mezam del nord-ovest del Camerun in particolare. Mentre i dati secondari raccolti includevano principalmente dati climatici (temperatura e precipitazioni), i dati primari sono stati raccolti attraverso indagini domestiche, focus group, interviste con persone di risorse e inventari sugli appezzamenti agroforestali e non agroforestali degli agricoltori. Questi dati sono stati analizzati su SPSS 20, Excel 2007 e STATA 13 utilizzando statistiche descrittive e inferenziali. Secondo i risultati, le percezioni dei piccoli agricoltori e i dati climatici analizzati hanno rivelato un aumento della temperatura e una riduzione delle precipitazioni totali negli ultimi decenni. Si è anche scoperto che gli agricoltori percepiscono il ripetersi di eventi meteorologici estremi (99%) e la povertà (96%) come i principali fattori di vulnerabilità al cambiamento climatico. Inoltre, le dimensioni della famiglia, il reddito familiare, l'età del capofamiglia, l'accesso alle informazioni e l'accesso alla terra hanno avuto una forte relazione causale negativa (p<0,05) con la vulnerabilità degli agricoltori al cambiamento climatico, dimostrando che queste variabili hanno una forte propensione a ridurre la vulnerabilità degli agricoltori. Le principali pratiche agroforestali degli agricoltori erano gli orti domestici con animali (53%), i campi con alberi (48%) e gli orti domestici (44%); le pratiche agroforestali classificate come sistemi agroforestali (con 7 pratiche) sono le più dominanti. I risultati hanno anche rivelato che cinque pratiche agroforestali (giardino domestico con animali, campi coperti da alberi, alberi sparsi nei pascoli, pratica agroforestale basata sul caffè e Taungya) hanno avuto una forte relazione causale negativa (p<0,05) con la vulnerabilità degli agricoltori al cambiamento climatico, il che significa che queste pratiche agroforestali hanno un ruolo importante nel mitigare la vulnerabilità degli agricoltori. Si è anche scoperto che quattro pratiche agroforestali (orto domestico con animali, orti domestici, alberi sparsi nei pascoli e pratica agroforestale basata sul caffè) avevano una forte relazione causale positiva (p<0,05) con la resilienza degli agricoltori al cambiamento climatico, il che dimostra che queste pratiche agroforestali svolgono un ruolo importante nel costruire la resilienza degli agricoltori. Questo dimostra che le pratiche agroforestali giocano un ruolo importante nel mitigare la vulnerabilità e costruire la resilienza dei sistemi agricoli dei piccoli proprietari ai cambiamenti climatici. Sulla base dei risultati di questo studio, è fortemente raccomandato che le pratiche e i sistemi agroforestali siano integrati come pratiche sostenibili a causa della loro capacità di mitigare la vulnerabilità e aumentare la resilienza degli agricoltori al cambiamento climatico.A mudança climática é agora considerada uma das maiores ameaças que a humanidade enfrenta. Os efeitos devastadores da mudança climática são um mau presságio para os atores envolvidos em setores dependentes do clima, como a agricultura. A promoção de práticas sustentáveis que reduzam a vulnerabilidade e melhorem a resiliência torna-se essencial. É dentro desta estrutura que este estudo examinou as contribuições das práticas agroflorestais para mitigar a vulnerabilidade e melhorar a resistência à mudança climática nos sistemas agrícolas de pequenos agricultores nos Camarões em geral e no Departamento de Mezam no noroeste dos Camarões em particular. Enquanto os dados secundários coletados incluíam principalmente dados climáticos (temperatura e pluviosidade), os dados primários foram coletados através de pesquisas domiciliares, grupos de foco, entrevistas com pessoas capacitadas e inventários de parcelas agroflorestais e não agroflorestais dos agricultores. Estes dados foram analisados no SPSS 20, Excel 2007 e STATA 13 usando estatísticas descritivas e inferenciais. De acordo com os resultados, as percepções dos pequenos agricultores e os dados climáticos analisados revelaram um aumento da temperatura e uma redução da precipitação total durante as últimas décadas. Também foi constatado que os agricultores perceberam a recorrência de eventos climáticos extremos (99%) e a pobreza (96%) como os principais fatores de vulnerabilidade à mudança climática. Além disso, o tamanho da família, a renda familiar, a idade do chefe de família, o acesso à informação e o acesso à terra tinham uma forte relação causal negativa (p<0,05) com a vulnerabilidade dos agricultores às mudanças climáticas, demonstrando que estas variáveis têm uma forte propensão para reduzir a vulnerabilidade dos agricultores. As principais práticas agroflorestais dos agricultores foram as hortas familiares com animais (53%), os campos com árvores (48%) e as hortas familiares (44%); as práticas agroflorestais classificadas em sistemas agroflorestais (com 7 práticas) foram as mais dominantes. Os resultados também revelaram que cinco práticas agroflorestais (horta doméstica com animais, campos cobertos de árvores, árvores dispersas em pastagens, prática agroflorestal baseada no café e Taungya) tinham uma forte relação causal negativa (p<0,05) com a vulnerabilidade dos agricultores à mudança climática, o que significa que estas práticas agroflorestais desempenham um papel importante na mitigação da vulnerabilidade dos agricultores. Também foi constatado que quatro práticas agroflorestais (horta familiar com animais, hortas familiares, árvores dispersas em pastagens e prática agroflorestal baseada no café) tinham uma forte relação causal positiva (p<0,05) com a resistência dos agricultores à mudança climática, o que mostra que essas práticas agroflorestais desempenham um papel importante na construção da resistência dos agricultores. Isto mostra que as práticas agroflorestais desempenham um papel importante na mitigação da vulnerabilidade e na construção da resiliência dos sistemas agrícolas de pequenos proprietários às mudanças climáticas. Com base nos resultados deste estudo, é fortemente recomendado

Assessing the Role of Irrigation as an Adaptive Measure to Climate Change Induced Water Insecurity: Case Study of the Market Gardening Sector in Parts of the Northwest and West Regions of Cameroon

Climate change induced extreme weather events are having major repercussions on availability and accessibility to water and water resources especially for farmers across the globe. This is more so for small-scale farmers in the developing world who largely depend on rain-fed agriculture. The market gardening sector in particular is known for its high dependence on suitable weather conditions for adequate productivity. However, in recent years, market garden crop cultivation has been severely threatened by climate change induced extreme weather events such as prolong dry spells, scanty and erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, extreme sunshine and storms. This study was undertaken to understand the role of irrigation as an adaptive measure to climate change induced water insecurity, with focus on the market gardening sector in parts of the west and northwest regions of Cameroon. Data were collected through a survey of 260 market gardeners involved in different irrigation practices geared toward countering water insecurity problems induced by climate change. Findings indicated that water insecurity is induced by extreme weather events such as prolong dryness, scanty and erratic rainfall, extreme sunshine and rising temperatures. A majority of the market gardeners surveyed reported the existence of water insecurity which has led to crop failure in many instances placing them in financial difficulties and seriously hampering their livelihood. Market gardeners were involved in different types of irrigation practices including sprinkler, drip, furrow, and manual with some taking to no irrigation practice. The main factors influencing market gardeners' practice of irrigation in the face of extreme weather induced water scarcity/insecurity were household income, age of market gardeners, educational level, farm size, number of farm plots, proximity to source of water, gender, water requirement of crop, support from government and NGOs, extension services, access to credit, membership in farming group and membership in common initiative group (CIG). Climate change has therefore induced water insecurity forcing market gardeners to indulge in different irrigation practices all year round in a bid to improve crop productivity and reduce recurrent crop failures. On the basis of these findings, the use of more sustainable irrigation methods in order to conserve water and water resources is recommended as this will go a long way to phase out the problem of water insecurity induced by climate change. Policy makers need to craft and implement favorable policies that encourage more market gardeners to adopt sustainable irrigation practices in the face of climate change induced water scarcity/insecurity.</jats:p

National parks in Cameroon and the in-situ conservation of threatened flora and fauna species: governance and policy paradigms

Abstract Cameroon boasts a diverse array of 22 established National Parks and an additional five proposed ones, spread across its five agroecological zones. The effective management of these parks faces substantial challenges, including governance and policy challenges as well as resistance to international conservation norms. Paradoxically, biodiversity decline has accompanied national park growth, underscoring management complexities. The main objective of this study was to examine the contribution of national parks to the in-situ conservation of threatened flora and fauna species in Cameroon with a focus on the policy and governance paradigms. Based on the findings, the flora of Cameroon's national parks, documented extensively by various studies, highlights significant species diversity and endemism. In terms of fauna, Cameroon's parks harbor diverse threatened species, including ichthyofauna in the Douala-Edea National Park with different endemic fish species vulnerable to habitat alterations. Governance and policy frameworks crucially impact conservation outcomes. Studies emphasize the need for robust governance practices to enhance community participation and address governance gaps, as evidenced in the Mount Cameroon National Park. Policy and governance instruments like Cameroon's 1994 Forestry law (updated with the 2024 Forestry Law), 1996 environmental management law as well as Cameroon’s National Development Strategy (NDS30) aim to sustainably manage forests and protect biodiversity, integrating environmental impact assessments (EIAs) to mitigate development impacts. Cameroon's National Parks play a vital role in biodiversity conservation, yet face ongoing challenges that necessitate strengthened governance and policy coherence to ensure sustainable management amidst global conservation imperatives