Mbinu, Dhima na Athari za Kumuanika Nje Mfiwa katika Utendaji wa Utani wa Wahehe

Utani ni kipera cha mazungumzo/nyambi katika fasihi simulizi chenye dhima mbalimbali kwa jamii husika. Lengo la makala hii ni kuchunguza mbinu, dhima na athari za kumuanika nje mfiwa katika utendaji wa utani wa Wahehe. Maswali tunayojibu ni: Je, ni utani upi unaojitokeza wakati wa kumuanika nje mfiwa? Nini dhima na athari ya utendaji huo wa utani kupitia mbinu ya kumuanika nje mfiwa? Data za utafiti huu zimekusanywa kwa kutumia mbinu ya mahojiano na ushuhudiaji wa misiba na kuchambuliwa kwa kutumia Nadharia ya Utendaji na Uamilifu. Matokeo ya utafiti huu yanaonesha kuwa mbinu ya kumuanika nje mfiwa pindi anapopatwa na msiba hufuata hatua kadhaa wakati wa utendaji wa utani. Utendaji wa utani huo kupitia mbinu ya kumuanika nje mfiwa huwa na dhima kama vile; kudumisha umoja na ushirikiano, kupunguza majonzi kwa wafiwa, kuilinda amali hii muhimu ya utani miongoni mwa wanajamii, kuonya na kuburudisha. Makala hii imegawanyika katika sehemu kuu tatu; utangulizi, kiini na hitimisho. Utangulizi unaeleza kwa ujumla dhana ya utani pamoja na nadharia zilizotumika. Kiini kinaelezea mbinu, dhima na athari za kumuanika nje mfiwa katika utendaji wa utani wa Wahehe. Sehemu hii imefuatiwa na mbinu za kiutendaji wa utani wakati wa kumuanika nje mfiwa, dhima, athari zake na mwisho hitimisho

The impact of low erythrocyte density in human blood on the fitness and energetic reserves of the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae

Background Anaemia is a common health problem in the developing world. This condition is characterized by a reduction in erythrocyte density, primarily from malnutrition and/or infectious diseases such as malaria. As red blood cells are the primary source of protein for haematophagous mosquitoes, any reduction could impede the ability of mosquito vectors to transmit malaria by influencing their fitness or that of the parasites they transmit. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of differences in the density of red blood cells in human blood on malaria vector (Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto) fitness. The hypotheses tested are that mosquito vector energetic reserves and fitness are negatively influenced by reductions in the red cell density of host human blood meals commensurate with those expected from severe anaemia. Methods Mosquitoes (An. gambiae s.s.) were offered blood meals of different packed cell volume(PCV) of human blood consistent with those arising from severe anaemia (15%) and normalPCV (50%). Associations between mosquito energetic reserves (lipid, glucose and glycogen)and fitness measures (reproduction and survival) and blood meal PCV were investigated. Results The amount of protein that malaria vectors acquired from blood feeding (indexed by haematin excretion) was significantly reduced at low blood PCV. However, mosquitoes feeding on blood of low PCV had the same oviposition rates as those feeding on blood of normal PCV, and showed an increase in egg production of around 15%. The long-term survival of An. gambiae s.s was reduced after feeding on low PCV blood, but PCV had no significant impact on the proportion of mosquitoes surviving through the minimal period required to develop and transmit malaria parasites (estimated as 14 days post-blood feeding). The impact of blood PCV on the energetic reserves of mosquitoes was relatively minor. Conclusions These results suggest that feeding on human hosts whose PCV has been depleted due to severe anaemia does not significantly reduce the fitness or transmission potential of malaria vectors, and indicates that mosquitoes may be able exploit resources for reproduction more efficiently from blood of low rather than normal PCV

Distribution and Abundance of Pine Needle Aphids (Eulachnus rileyi Williams) and Their Potential Natural Enemies on Pine Tree Species (Pinus patula and Pinus elliottii) at Sao Hill Forest Plantation, Iringa-Tanzania

A study was conducted at SHFP, Tanzania to assess the distribution and abundance of PNA and their potential natural enemies. Systematic sampling was used to select every 5th tree along the row of the particular compartment. Five shoots were randomly cut from lower, middle and upper crown parts of each selected tree for laboratory analysis. Data analysis was performed using R and Excel, with normality and homogeneity of variance checked using Shapiro-Wilk and Levene’s tests, respectively. Results revealed that PNA was un-equally distributed throughout the divisions, trees species and age classes at SHFP. The abundance of adult aphids per twig was 7.6 and 12.9 for Division II and III, respectively and was significantly different. Similarly, the mean abundance of eggs and nymphs per twig were 5.5 and 12.2 in Division II and 9.2 and 21.1 in Division III, respectively. Nymphs were more abundant than eggs and adults, while eggs were the least abundant across all examined pine species and age classes. The abundance of adult aphid was 19.6 and 7.0 for P. elliottii and P. patula, respectively and was significantly different. For P. patula, the abundance of adult aphid per twig was 7.3, 8.5 and 5.1 for young, middle and old age classes respectively. In P. elliottii stands, the abundance of adult aphid population per twig was 23.2 and 17.9 for middle and old age classes respectively. The middle part of the tree crown had the highest aphid abundance for both tree species and age classes. Three main natural enemies were identified: Coccinellid beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Spiders (Arachnida) and Stink bugs (Pentatomidae), but their numbers were low. The correlation between the abundance of PNA and natural enemies was weakly positive (Rho = 0.0859) but statistically significant (p = 0.035). Tending operations i.e. thinning, weeding, pruning, and regular insect survey and monitoring programs, are recommended to mitigate favorable conditions for aphid growth. Additionally, the SHFP management team should reconsider the introduction and release of Tetraphleps raoi or other predators as biological control agents over large area to increase the current stock of the natural enemies as there were no introduce natural enemies found in the plantatio

Trauma history and depression predict incomplete adherence to antiretroviral therapies in a low income country.

As antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV becomes increasingly available in low and middle income countries (LMICs), understanding reasons for lack of adherence is critical to stemming the tide of infections and improving health. Understanding the effect of psychosocial experiences and mental health symptomatology on ART adherence can help maximize the benefit of expanded ART programs by indicating types of services, which could be offered in combination with HIV care. The Coping with HIV/AIDS in Tanzania (CHAT) study is a longitudinal cohort study in the Kilimanjaro Region that included randomly selected HIV-infected (HIV+) participants from two local hospital-based HIV clinics and four free-standing voluntary HIV counselling and testing sites. Baseline data were collected in 2008 and 2009; this paper used data from 36 month follow-up interviews (N = 468). Regression analyses were used to predict factors associated with incomplete self-reported adherence to ART. INCOMPLETE ART ADHERENCE WAS SIGNIFICANTLY MORE LIKELY TO BE REPORTED AMONGST PARTICIPANTS WHO EXPERIENCED A GREATER NUMBER OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMATIC EVENTS: sexual abuse prior to puberty and the death in childhood of an immediate family member not from suicide or homicide were significantly more likely in the non-adherent group and other negative childhood events trended toward being more likely. Those with incomplete adherence had higher depressive symptom severity and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In multivariable analyses, childhood trauma, depression, and financial sacrifice remained associated with incomplete adherence.\ud This is the first study to examine the effect of childhood trauma, depression and PTSD on HIV medication adherence in a low income country facing a significant burden of HIV. Allocating spending on HIV/AIDS toward integrating mental health services with HIV care is essential to the creation of systems that enhance medication adherence and maximize the potential of expanded antiretroviral access to improve health and reduce new infections

Eliminating Malaria Vectors.

Malaria vectors which predominantly feed indoors upon humans have been locally eliminated from several settings with insecticide treated nets (ITNs), indoor residual spraying or larval source management. Recent dramatic declines of An. gambiae in east Africa with imperfect ITN coverage suggest mosquito populations can rapidly collapse when forced below realistically achievable, non-zero thresholds of density and supporting resource availability. Here we explain why insecticide-based mosquito elimination strategies are feasible, desirable and can be extended to a wider variety of species by expanding the vector control arsenal to cover a broader spectrum of the resources they need to survive. The greatest advantage of eliminating mosquitoes, rather than merely controlling them, is that this precludes local selection for behavioural or physiological resistance traits. The greatest challenges are therefore to achieve high biological coverage of targeted resources rapidly enough to prevent local emergence of resistance and to then continually exclude, monitor for and respond to re-invasion from external populations

Methanethiol-dependent dimethylsulfide production in soil environments

Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is an environmentally important trace gas with roles in sulfur cycling, signalling to higher organisms and in atmospheric chemistry. DMS is believed to be predominantly produced in marine environments via microbial degradation of the osmolyte dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). However, significant amounts of DMS are also generated from terrestrial environments, for example, peat bogs can emit ~6 μmol DMS m−2 per day, likely via the methylation of methanethiol (MeSH). A methyltransferase enzyme termed ‘MddA’, which catalyses the methylation of MeSH, generating DMS, in a wide range of bacteria and some cyanobacteria, may mediate this process, as the mddA gene is abundant in terrestrial metagenomes. This is the first study investigating the functionality of MeSH-dependent DMS production (Mdd) in a wide range of aerobic environments. All soils and marine sediment samples tested produced DMS when incubated with MeSH. Cultivation-dependent and cultivation-independent methods were used to assess microbial community changes in response to MeSH addition in a grassland soil where 35.9% of the bacteria were predicted to contain mddA. Bacteria of the genus Methylotenera were enriched in the presence of MeSH. Furthermore, many novel Mdd+ bacterial strains were isolated. Despite the abundance of mddA in the grassland soil, the Mdd pathway may not be a significant source of DMS in this environment as MeSH addition was required to detect DMS at only very low conversion rates

Agriculture is the main driver of deforestation in Tanzania

Reducing deforestation can generate multiple economic, social and ecological benefits by safeguarding the climate and other ecosystem services provided by forests. Understanding the relative contribution of different drivers of deforestation is needed to guide policies seeking to maintain natural forest cover. We assessed 119 randomly selected plots from areas deforested between 2010 and 2017, in Tanzania. Through ground surveys and stakeholder interviews we assessed the proximate deforestation drivers at each point. Crop cultivation was the most commonly observed driver occurring in 89% of plots, compared to livestock grazing (69%) and charcoal (35%). There was evidence of fire in 77% of plots. Most deforestation events involved multiple drivers, with 83% of plots showing signs of two or more drivers. Stakeholder interviews identified agriculture as the primary deforestation driver in 81% of plots, substantially more than charcoal production (12%), timber harvesting (1%) and livestock (1%). Policy-makers in Tanzania have sought to reduce deforestation by reducing demand for charcoal. However, our work demonstrates that agriculture, not charcoal, is the main driver of deforestation in Tanzania. Beyond protected areas, there is no clear policy limiting the conversion of forests to agricultural land. Reducing deforestation in Tanzania requires greater inter-sectoral coordination between the agriculture, livestock, land, energy and forest sectors

Deciphering the Complex Distribution of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Subtypes among Different Cohorts in Northern Tanzania.

Increased understanding of the genetic diversity of HIV-1 is challenging but important in the development of an effective vaccine. We aimed to describe the distribution of HIV-1 subtypes in northern Tanzania among women enrolled in studies preparing for HIV-1 prevention trials (hospitality facility-worker cohorts), and among men and women in an open cohort demographic surveillance system (Kisesa cohort). The polymerase encompassing partial reverse transcriptase was sequenced and phylogenetic analysis performed and subtype determined. Questionnaires documented demographic data. We examined factors associated with subtype using multinomial logistic regression, adjusted for study, age, and sex. Among 140 individuals (125 women and 15 men), subtype A1 predominated (54, 39%), followed by C (46, 33%), D (25, 18%) and unique recombinant forms (URFs) (15, 11%). There was weak evidence to suggest different subtype frequencies by study (for example, 18% URFs in the Kisesa cohort versus 5-9% in the hospitality facility-worker cohorts; adjusted relative-risk ratio (aRR) = 2.35 [95% CI 0.59,9.32]; global p = 0.09). Compared to men, women were less likely to have subtype D versus A (aRR = 0.12 [95% CI 0.02,0.76]; global p = 0.05). There was a trend to suggest lower relative risk of subtype D compared to A with older age (aRR = 0.44 [95% CI 0.23,0.85] per 10 years; global p = 0.05). We observed multiple subtypes, confirming the complex genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains circulating in northern Tanzania, and found some differences between cohorts and by age and sex. This has important implications for vaccine design and development, providing opportunity to determine vaccine efficacy in diverse HIV-1 strains

A descriptive qualitative case study of the experiences, perceptions, and attitudes of pregnant women on Unguja island, Zanzibar, towards antischistosomal treatment

Many countries exclude pregnant and lactating women from mass drug administration (MDA) programmes with praziquantel against schistosomiasis due to historic safety concerns over drug use during gestation and breast feeding. More than 10 years of empirical evidence from the field and a growing body of dedicated research has prompted the World Health Organisation and schistosomiasis control initiatives to advocate the inclusion of this vulnerable group into MDA. This qualitative descriptive case study explored, over a five-week period, the subjective experiences, perceptions, opinions, and attitudes of pregnant women attending government supported clinics on Unguja island, United Republic of Tanzania, towards praziquantel use during pregnancy in MDA programmes. The aim of the study was to identify and determine how to overcome potential barriers to effective use of MDA medications during pregnancy. Additionally, it was to determine trusted communication channels for future messaging and discover behavioural and community opportunities to increase participation of pregnant women in future MDA efforts. A 60-minute, semi-structured qualitative interview was undertaken with 25 pregnant women recruited from 4 health centres on Unguja along with testing for Schistosoma haematobium infection. Using a modified-grounded theory approach, narrative data were transcribed, coded and analysed using a thematic analysis of the emergent themes. Women reported they rely on traditional home remedies to stay healthy during pregnancy. Influenced by their mothers, husbands and neighbours, women predominately made medication choices during pregnancy and breastfeeding based on what they heard at home. Most women had been excluded from government MDA programmes in the past due to pregnancy. Women valued healthcare services for antenatal education and pregnancy advice. Women reported they would trust and follow direction from healthcare providers about taking praziquantel during pregnancy. Antenatal clinics offer an excellent opportunity to educate and expand praziquantel treatment to this cohort. Efforts should be augmented with training for providers and behavioural education for the community as a whole and family members of pregnant women