Risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in a new epidemic site in Amhara Region, Ethiopia

We conducted a case-control study to evaluate risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis during an epidemic in a previously unaffected district of Ethiopia. We also collected blood and bone marrow specimens from dogs in the outbreak villages. In multivariable analyses of 171 matched case-control pairs, dog ownership, sleeping under an acacia tree during the day, and habitually sleeping outside at night were associated with significantly increased risk. Specimens from 7 (3.8%) dogs were positive by immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), whereas Leishmania DNA was detected in 5 (2.8%) bone marrow aspirates (from 3 seropositive and 2 seronegative dogs). Insecticide-treated nets may only protect a portion of those at risk. Further research on the vectors, the role of the dog in the transmission cycle, and the effect of candidate interventions are needed to design the best strategy for control

Natural history of a visceral leishmaniasis outbreak in highland Ethiopia

In May 2005, visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was recognized for the first time in Libo Kemken, Ethiopia, a highland region where only few cases had been reported before. We analyzed records of VL patients treated from May 25, 2005 to December 13, 2007 by the only VL treatment center in the area, maintained by Médecins Sans Frontières-Ethiopia, Operational Center Barcelona-Athens. The median age was 18 years; 77.6% were male. The overall case fatality rate was 4%, but adults 45 years or older were five times as likely to die as 5-29 year olds. Other factors associated with increased mortality included HIV infection, edema, severe malnutrition, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and vomiting. The VL epidemic expanded rapidly over a several-year period, culminating in an epidemic peak in the last third of 2005, spread over two districts, and transformed into a sustained endemic situation by 2007

Path of Electron Transfer on Reaction of Xanthine Oxidase with 6-mercaptopurine and hypoxanthine

Enzymes often rely on the coupling of electrons and protons to affect primary metabolic steps involving charge transport and catalysis. The present theoretical study is intend to explore the path of electron transfer from substrate to active site and to provide a plausible route of electron transfer in the enzymatic catalysis from 6-MP or hypoxanthine to active site. Density functional theory (DFT)/B3LYP method were used to probe the path of electron or proton transfer mechanism from Mullikan charge. The Mullikan atomic charge of Mo decreased from 0.624793 to 0.398834, CRH bound equatorial oxygen of active site is increased by 0.16132, HRH decreased by 0.146701 that is around two fold increase in electron density this may be due to removal of electron as hydride toward sulfido terminal. Terminal sulfido (SMo-HRH) decreased to -0.0107, Oeq of active site decreased to -0.43539 when it bound to C2 of substrate. The electronegativity of Oeq more than oxo group by 0.05154 hence Oeq is a better nucleophile. Therefore the catalytically labile site should be the metal-coordinated hydroxide (Oeq) rather than the apical oxo group (Mo=O). Sulfido terminal (SMo) decreased in electronegativity due to delocalization of electron density to active site Mo that facilitates the transfer of electron up on the attack of hydride from hydrogen bond substrate. Electron densities on Sfront and Sback increased in (-0.2233 & -0.20266) respectively which may facilitate the movement of equatorial hydroxide towards C2 of substrates (CRH). Charge distribution on C2 is (0.143402 and 0.139523) and on C8 is (0.140514 and 0.133494) respectively for 6-MP and hypoxanthine. This implies in both cases C2 shows electron deficiency and hence it is more electrophilic relative to C8. Charge density of HRH bound C2 is (0.171649 and 0.15786) and HRH bound C8 is (0.08821 and 0.080245) respectively for 6-MP and hypoxanthine hence hydrogen bound C2 is labile for hydride transfer due to high electronegative nature which indicate C2 position is more susceptible to nucleophilic attack by hydroxide of active site. Therefore it can be generalized that oxidation of 6-mercaptopurine or hypoxanthine by XO proceed through abstraction of proton by Glu1226 from equatorial hydroxide of active site followed by nucleophilic attach on C2 of substrate and hydride was transferred through concomitant release of oxidized substrate. Key words:hypoxanthine, 6-mercaptopurine, Density functional theory, nucleophil

Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Textile Wastes in Arba Minch and Hawassa Textile Factories

The untreated effluents discharged by the industries leads to serious pollution of surface water, ground water, soils and ultimately affect the livelihood of the poor. With these respect assessment of socio-economic impacts of these textile industries is one of the crucial issues. Theoretical data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and observations of workers and Peoples resided near textiles. In addition to the theoretical data indicators of physicochemical pollutants such as color, temperature, conductivity, pH, TDS, TSS, BOD and COD of nearby water bodies were studied. The values of COD (mg/L) for six sample sites were 328, 264, 68, 60,190, and 160 and the value of BOD(mg/L) 120, 90.5, 24, 27, 40.8, and 27.5 respectively. Some are found to be higher than the limits set by WHO (COD 250mg/L) and (BOD 30 mg/L) for the discharged of textile effluents into river. The ratio of BOD:COD was less than 0.5 indicates that effluent contains large proportion of non-biodegradable matter. Total of workers employed in both textiles are1584 with monthly salary ranging from 500 to 6000. The worker use glove, aprons and safety shoes are about 15.9%, the rest use one of the safety materials mentioned above. The residences suffered from bad odor of the textile wastes, they have got asthma, frequent headache, sneezing, and influenza. Animals of the residences that drank waste water and ate the nearby grass become thin and got long lasting sick. It was therefore, concluded that textile effluents were highly polluted hence negatively affect the socio-economic development. Appropriate treatment of must be made to render the wastewater suitable for residences and the receiving water bodies. Key Words: Socioeconomic impact, Textile waste, socio-economic

The burden of neglected tropical diseases in Ethiopia, and opportunities for integrated control and elimination

Background: Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a group of chronic parasitic diseases and related conditions that are the most common diseases among the 2·7 billion people globally living on less than US$2 per day. In response to the growing challenge of NTDs, Ethiopia is preparing to launch a NTD Master Plan. The purpose of this review is to underscore the burden of NTDs in Ethiopia, highlight the state of current interventions, and suggest ways forward. Results: This review indicates that NTDs are significant public health problems in Ethiopia. From the analysis reported here, Ethiopia stands out for having the largest number of NTD cases following Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ethiopia is estimated to have the highest burden of trachoma, podoconiosis and cutaneous leishmaniasis in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the second highest burden in terms of ascariasis, leprosy and visceral leishmaniasis, and the third highest burden of hookworm. Infections such as schistosomiasis, trichuriasis, lymphatic filariasis and rabies are also common. A third of Ethiopians are infected with ascariasis, one quarter is infected with trichuriasis and one in eight Ethiopians lives with hookworm or is infected with trachoma. However, despite these high burdens of infection, the control of most NTDs in Ethiopia is in its infancy. In terms of NTD control achievements, Ethiopia reached the leprosy elimination target of 1 case/10,000 population in 1999. No cases of human African trypanosomiasis have been reported since 1984. Guinea worm eradication is in its final phase. The Onchocerciasis Control Program has been making steady progress since 2001. A national blindness survey was conducted in 2006 and the trachoma program has kicked off in some regions. Lymphatic Filariasis, podoconiosis and rabies mapping are underway. Conclusion: Ethiopia bears a significant burden of NTDs compared to other SSA countries. To achieve success in integrated control of NTDs, integrated mapping, rapid scale up of interventions and operational research into co implementation of intervention packages will be crucial

Determination and Enforcent of Penalties And Measures On Young Offenders in Kafa Zone, South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State of Ethiopia

For the purpose of this research Young offenders are persons under the age of eighteen but above nine who are involved in criminal offences. Unlike adult offenders, they are required to be treated in special and separate procedures owing to their immaturity to take criminal responsibility and for being vulnerable social groups to defend themselves. Both national laws such as FDRE constitution, FDRE criminal code, CPC, SNNPR constitution, etc and international laws like CRC, ICCPR and other international standards have incorporated the same notion where persons under the same classes are required to be treated in special way. The purpose of juvenile justice is to hold young people accountable by imposing measures that have meaningful consequences for them and that promote their rehabilitation and reintegration into society, thereby contributing to the long-term protection of the public. Therefore, persons who involve in the notion of juvenile cases should have the knowhow about the purpose of juvenile justice system. When young offenders are involved in criminal acts they shall be taken immediately to the nearest court who shall direct the issue of commencement of investigation and framing of charge on them. Having considered the immature mind set up of juveniles alternative measures are advisable and imposition of penalty should be taken as the last resort if the alternative measures are not effective and it shall be enforced in strict segregation from adult offenders. The researcher assessed the determination and enforcement of measures and penalties in kafa zone through questionnaires, interviews, field observation and document analysis. Judges, public prosecutors, investigating police officers, administrators of Bonga correction center and young offenders in the correction center are participated as respondents in data collection. Data collected from the study area shows that there is clear violation of laws dealing with juvenile justice by persons involved in the cases of young offenders. While the law requires the authorization of court to begin investigation and to frame charge on young offenders, most cases are conducted without this authorization. The requirement of law to try cases of young offenders in separate trial and separate accommodation is not strictly obeyed. Both in police stations and in correction center, young offenders are imprisoned with adult offenders due to the absence of separate accommodation. Alternative measures are also not taken as a primary option. Therefore, the researcher has suggested the corrective measures to be taken to tackle the problems through awareness creation programs for justice actors and effective implementation of laws and standards to make rehabilitation of young offenders sound and achieving its goal

Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis: a case control study in north-western Ethiopia

Background Visceral leishmaniasis (VL, also called “kala-azar”), is a life threatening neglected tropical infectious disease which mainly affects the poorest of the poor. VL is prevalent in Ethiopia particularly in the northwest of the country. Understanding the risk factors of VL infection helps in its prevention and control. The aim of the present study was to identify the factors associated with VL. Methods A case–control study was carried out during the period of January-July 2013 in northwest Ethiopia. Cases and controls were diagnosed using clinical presentation, the rk39 rapid diagnostic test and Direct Agglutination Test (DAT). A total of 283 (84.8% males versus 15.2% females) participants were interviewed. 90 cases and 193 controls were involved, matched by age, sex and geographical location with a ratio of 1:2 (case: controls). Univariate and backward multivariate conditional logistic regression were used to identify risk factors of VL. Results Elevated odds of VL was associated with goat ownership (OR = 6.4; 95%: confidence interval [Cl]: 1.5-28.4), living in houses with cracked wall (OR = 6.4; 95% Cl: 1.6-25.6), increased family size (OR = 1.3; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.8) and the number of days spent in the farm field (OR = 1.1; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.2). However, daily individual activities around the home and farm fields, mainly sleeping on a bed (OR = 0.2; 95%: Cl 0.03-0.9), sleeping outside the house under a bed net (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.02-0.36)] and smoking plant parts in the house during the night time (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.01-0.6) were associated with decreased odds of being VL case. Conclusion Our findings showed that use of bed net and smoke could be helpful for the prevention of VL in the area particularly among individuals who spend most of their time in the farm. VL control effort could be focused on improving housing conditions, such as sealing cracks and crevices inside and outside houses. Further research is warranted to elucidate the role of goats in the transmission of L. donovani, assess the impact of bed nets and the role of the traditional practice of smoking plants