Essays in macroeconomics

This thesis consists of three self-contained chapters. In the first chapter, I present analytical expressions for fiscal multipliers under the Fiscal Theory of the Price Level. In the associated 'fiscal regime', taxation multipliers turn positive, while the government spending multiplier has the same functional form as its counterpart in the 'monetary regime', augmented by a nominal wealth effect. As a result, fiscal multipliers tend to be larger in the fiscal regime, with the degree of price stickiness being a key determinant of their exact sizes. I also analyze the effectiveness of money-financed fiscal stimulus. In the fiscal regime, money-financed stimulus is equivalent to a particular form of debt-financed stimulus. The effectiveness of money-financed stimulus in raising output (relative to in inflation) decreases as monetary policy becomes more responsive to inflation. In the second chapter, I analytically study the effects on economic activity from expected changes to future fiscal variables. I document four transmission mechanisms, the sizes of which depend crucially on the level of nominal rigidities. In general, news shocks to fiscal policy produce larger effects when the policy rate is unresponsive to inflation and when the fiscal authority has the power to issue unbacked nominal debt. Within this framework, I show that 'forward guidance' of fiscal policy can expand economic activity without ever increasing the real value of government debt. In the third chapter, I use the falling relative price of investment to explain the growing divergence between gross and net asset positions in the U.S. A lower investment price leads shadow banks to increase their borrowing and lending (i.e. gross balance sheet) to profit from better investment returns. Although more investment increases the capital stock, a lower investment price also lowers the replacement cost and, by extension, the per-unit market value of capital. Net asset positions remain, as a result, relatively unchanged. I present a stylized model that accounts for these facts

On gastrointestinal viral infections

Gastrointestinal viral infections cause considerable morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many factors influencing clinical presentation, disease severity, epidemiology, and transmission are not fully understood. The aims of this thesis were (I) to develop a predictive model based on clinical criteria to assess patients with gastroenteritis symptoms in the Emergency Department; (II) to determine the morbidity and mortality in elderly hospitalized individuals with rotavirus infection; (III) to examine how outdoor climate factors impact seasonal variation of gastroenteritis virus detection; and (IV) to study differences in SARS-CoV-2 sequences from feces and nasopharynx. In paper I, we prospectively observed 66 patients presenting with vomiting or diarrhea in the Emergency Department. Thirty-one (47%) tested positive for gastroenteritis. In a model, scoring one point for each of diarrhea, vomiting, and short symptom duration, a score of less than two identified patients without viral gastroenteritis. In paper II, we retrospectively studied 159 elderly patients hospitalized with rotavirus gastroenteritis. Most patients presented with community-onset disease and had few comorbidities. Short-term mortality was low (2.5%). In paper III, weekly detection rates of gastroenteritis viruses were studied in relation to weekly data of outdoor climate factors. Low absolute humidity correlated strongly with detection rates of all viruses. A drop in absolute humidity preceded the beginning of norovirus epidemics. In paper IV, we prospectively observed 112 patients hospitalized with COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 was found in 88 (79%) fecal samples and did not correlate with severe disease. More strain variability was found in SARS-CoV-2 sequences from feces compared to nasopharynx. In conclusion, diarrhea and short symptom duration were independently associated with detection of gastroenteritis by PCR. Rotavirus infections in the hospitalized elderly mainly affected relatively healthy individuals. Low absolute humidity correlated with norovirus seasonality and predicted onset of seasonal epidemics. SARS-CoV-2 strain variability was greater in feces compared to the nasopharynx, indicating intestinal SARS-CoV-2 replication

Förskolors inställning till och användning av stadens natur

This master thesis is made in co-operation with the Department of Forest Management and Products at the Swedish University of Agriculture in Uppsala and the Forestry Association in Stockholm. The purpose of the Master thesis was to describe how pre-schools in Sweden use forests and green areas, and to understand how different factors can affect the use of the nature. The purpose of the interviews was to create a picture of attitudes and routines of the pre-schools, in the matter of visiting the nature. The thesis is built on interviews where fifteen pre-schools in five large cities around Sweden participated. Among these pre-schools, five of them worked with special focus on nature, while the other ten did not have any particular focus connected to their activity. The attitude towards visiting the nature was positive among all fifteen pre-schools. The most mentioned reason why not visiting the nature was the lack of staff members. On the contrary, the results from the investigation show that the connection between the number of children by employed and visiting the nature is weak. Firm routines, sleeping-nap and playing together with the power of habits seem to be other obstructions. Those pre-schools that are situated near green areas visit the nature more often than those pre-schools with a longer distance to the nature. In a dream environment would the pre-schools, according to the study, wish to have more variations in the landscape. Rough terrain, water, bushes and trees are the most wanted contents. The highest wish among the pre-schools was nearness to nature. The shape of nature was less important in the dream environment. Most important thing was that nature is available. All pre-schools have experienced positive effects with the children in relation to visiting nature. The most obvious effects experienced by the staff vary, but many of the teachers caught similar impressions. Conclusions from the investigation show that visiting the nature is closely related to the amount of personal interest that the teachers have when it comes to nature. As a pre-school teacher it is difficult to motivate one self to bring half a dousing of children out in the nature, when you do not get any satisfaction your self from being there.Det här är ett examensarbete i samarbete med Institutionen för Skogshushållning på Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet i Uppsala och Föreningen Skogen i Stockholm. Syftet med examensarbetet är att beskriva förskolors användning av skog och få en förståelse för faktorer som påverkar användningen. Målet med intervjuerna är att få en bild av förskolors inställning och rutiner kring besök i naturen. Examensarbetet bygger på en intervjustudie där femton förskolor i fem större städer runt om i Sverige har ingått. Av dessa förskolor hade fem stycken naturinriktad verksamhet, medan de resterande tio saknade tydlig inriktning mot naturintressen. Generellt kan sägas att inställningen till att vistas i naturen är positiv på samtliga besökta förskolor. Det mest framträdande hindret till att inte vistas i naturen är, enligt de flesta förskolelärarna, brist på personal. Resultaten från intervjuerna visar dock att kopplingen, mellan antalet barn per personal och besöksfrekvensen i naturen, är svag. Fasta rutiner för måltider, sovpauser och lek tillsammans med vanans makt anses vara andra vanliga hinder. De förskolor som är placerade i närheten av naturområden besöker naturen betydligt oftare än förskolor som har en längre sträcka dit. En önskad drömmiljö för förskoleverksamheten präglas, enligt studien, av variation i landskapet och dess utformning. Kuperad mark, vattendrag, buskar och träd är de mest önskvärda innehållen. För flertalet av förskolorna är närheten till naturen den högsta drömmen. Önskemål om drömmiljöns utformning kommer i de fallen längre ner på listan. Det primära är att naturen finns till hands. Samtliga förskolor upplever positiva effekter hos barnen i samband med naturbesök. Vilka effekter som upplevs starkast av personalen varierar, men många har fångat liknande intryck. Slutsatser från undersökningen visar att andelen besök med förskolan i naturen till stor del avspeglas av förskolelärarnas personliga grad av naturintresse. Det är svårt att som förskolelärare motivera sig till att ta med och ansvara för ett antal barn ute i naturen, när man själv inte upplever någon tillfredsställelse av att vistas i utemiljö

Företags sociala ansvar och deras varumärkesidentiteter

Dagens konsumenter efterfrågar i allt större utsträckning företagens engagemang gentemot miljö och samhälle. För vissa är Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR, ett krav för att konsumera en tjänst eller produkt. Verksamheter som arbetar med CSR kan stärka sina varumärken samt differentiera sig mot konkurrenterna i branschen. Syftet med denna studie är att ge en teoretisk belysning av hur våra valda fallföretag jobbar med det växande intresset kring CSR, samt identifiera vilka lärdomar som kan dras kring framgångsrikt varumärkesbyggande med utgångspunkt från CSR. Studien tillämpar kvalitativa forskningsmetoden med tre fallföretag som empiri. Inom CSR finns flera olika metoder för att analysera hur företag arbetar, samt huruvida de får med de olika delar som är viktiga komponenter för ett givande CSR- arbete. Olika forskning tar upp olika delar, men de flesta går att överföra på varandra, vilket visas i teorikapitlet. Genom att arbeta med dessa olika komponenter och tillämpa dem på företag, har sedan en analys av tre fallföretag gjorts. De fallföretag vi har valt att studera är The Body Shop, Patagonia samt Max Hamburgerrestauranger. Dessa företag valdes på grund av att CSR har en framträdande roll i deras marknadskommunikation. CSR är en del i deras varumärkesidentitet och bidrar till deras marknadspositionering. I analysen har Kapferers modell Identitetsprisman använts för att analysera de olika varumärkena. Genom att applicera denna modell på de tre fallföretagen har slutsatser kunnat dras kring hur varumärkena påverkas av CSR. Med hjälp av detta verktyg analyseras sex olika delar av de tre fallföretagens varumärken: fysik, personlighet, kultur, relation, reflektion samt självbild. Genom att jämföra de tre företagens CSR- aktiviteter, har ytterligare slutsatser kunnat dras kring fallföretagen. De slutsatser som vi kommit fram till är att de tre fallföretagen påverkas av deras CSR- arbete och att detta stärker deras varumärkesidentiteter. Detta görs genom kampanjer och reklam. Vi har studerat vilka CSR-aktiviteter företagen redovisar. The Body Shop har tillsammans med flera andra organisationer och företag drivit flertalet kampanjer, exempelvis med företaget Amnesty genom en kampanj för människors rättigheter runt om i världen. Ytterligare samarbeten har skett med företag som Greenpeace och ECPAT. Klädföretaget Patagonia ingår i organisationen ”One Percent For The Planet”, och uppger att de årligen stöder dess verksamhet med en procent av sin försäljningsomsättning. Även Max Hamburgerrestauranger redovisar ett tydligt miljöfokus, då de som första restaurang i världen har infogat en klimatdeklarerad meny, där de redovisar hur mycket koldioxidutsläpp varje meny orsakar.Today's consumers are demanding increasingly corporate commitment to the environment and society. For some Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR, a requirement to consume a service or product. Businesses that work with CSR can strengthen their brands and differentiate themselves from their competitors. The purpose of this study is to provide a theoretical clarification of how our chosen case companies are working with the growing interest on CSR, and identify what lessons can be learned about successful branding based on CSR. The study applies the qualitative research methodology with three case companies. CSR are several different methods to analyze how companies work, and whether they get with the different elements that are important components of a rewarding CSR work. Different research addressing various parts, but most can transfer to each other, as shown in the theory chapter. By working with these different components and apply them to the company, then an analysis of three case companies is made. The case companies we have chosen to study is The Body Shop, Patagonia and Max Hamburgerrestauranger. These companies were chosen because of that CSR plays a prominent role in their marketing communications. CSR is an integral part of their brand identity and adds to their market positioning. In the analysis, Kapferer's model Brand Identity Prism is used to analyze the various brands. By applying this model to the three case companies, the companies has conclusions could be drawn about how their brands are influenced by CSR. With the help of this tool are analyzed six different parts of the three cases corporate brands: physique, personality, culture, relationship, reflection, and self-image. By comparing the three companies' CSR activities, has further conclusions could be drawn about the case companies. The conclusions that has drawn is that their work with CSR affect their brands in a clear manner that also strengthen their brand identities. This is done through promotions and advertising. We have studied the CSR activities the companies are reporting. The Body Shop, along with several other organizations and companies run many campaigns, for example by undertaking Amnesty through a campaign for human rights around the world. Additional collaborations have been with companies such as Greenpeace and ECPAT. Clothing company Patagonia is a part of the organization "One Percent For The Planet", and state that they annually supports its operations with a percentage of their sales turnover. Even Max Hamburgerrestauranger reports a clear environmental focus, then the first restaurant in the world has introduced a climate declared menu, where they describe the amount of carbon dioxide emissions each menu causes

Hur ett certifieringsorgan kan bidra till en hållbar värdekedja

Med miljöföroreningar och överfisket i världshaven står fiskbranschen inför stora utmaningar för att ställa om till ett mer hållbart fiske. Landbaserade system för fisk- och skaldjursproduktion är en relativt ny produktionsform som uppkommit där systemen har en uppbyggnad likt ett kretslopp. Systemen är effektiva, hållbara och har en minimal negativ påverkan på miljön. Fiskbranschen är en relativt oreglerad bransch med bristande riktlinjer och lagar jämfört med andra animalieproduktioner både i Sverige och globalt. Därför utvecklar Svenskt Sigill en IPstandard för landbaserad fisk- och skaldjursproduktion som ger producenter möjlighet att kunna certifiera sig och märka sina produkter med Svenskt Sigill. Detta kommer skapa riktlinjer, ett ordentligt regelverk och ge konsumenter ett hållbart alternativ av fiskkonsumtion. I och med denna nya certifiering kommer många aktörer bli inblandade. Hur Svenskt Sigill förhåller sig till de andra aktörerna i denna utveckling intresserade uppsatsförfattarna. En miljömärkning på en produkt skapar ett mervärde hos konsumenterna som ökar betalningsviljan på produkten. Detta mervärde utvecklas i varje del av en värdekedja som består av flera aktörer. Syftet med denna studie är då att utveckla och förstå rollen av certifierande organ i utvecklingen av mer hållbara värdekedjor. För att kunna besvara frågeställningarna i denna kvalitativa fallstudie har representanter från Svenskt Sigill, Axfood, Coop och ICA intervjuats. Svenskt Sigill är ett certifierande organ som kontrollerar och utvecklar standarder inom livsmedel och blommor. Axfood, Coop och ICA är aktörer inom dagligvaruhandeln som tillsammans har marknadsandelar motsvarande ca 90 %. För att uppnå syftet har en teoretisk syntes gjorts som kopplar hållbar utveckling med företagsekonomiska teorier kring värdekedja och marknadskanaler. Resultatet visar att Svenskt Sigill har fått förfrågningar att göra en certifiering av landbaserade system för fisk- och skaldjur, från både producenter och handeln. Detta betyder att fallstudien inte visar sig överensstämma med den traditionella modellen av marknadskanaler. Istället visade sig marknadskanalen ha en mer dynamisk utformning där det sker ett samspel mellan aktörerna. Att ha ett certifierande organ likt Svenskt Sigill i en värdekedja gör att den blir mer dynamisk och frångår sin traditionella linjära form. De verkar som en kontrollerande tredje part samtidigt som de sammankopplar handeln med producenter och till viss del konsumenter.With environmental pollution and overfishing in the oceans, the fish industry faces major challenges to convert to a more sustainable fishing. Land-based systems are a relatively new form of production that arose where the systems have a structure similar to a cycle. The systems are efficient, durable and have a minimal negative impact on the environment. The fish industry is a relatively unregulated industry with a lack of guidelines and laws compared to another animal production both in Sweden and globally. Therefore, Svenskt Sigill develops an IP-standard for land-based fish and shellfish production, which gives producers the opportunity to certify themselves and label their products with Svenskt Sigill. This will create guidelines, a proper regulatory framework and give consumers a sustainable alternative of fish consumption. With this new certification, many actors will be involved. The essay writers are interested in how the Svenskt Sigill relates to the other actors in this development. An eco-label on a product creates added value for consumers, which increases the willingness to pay for the product. This added value develops in every part of a value chain that consists of several actors. The purpose of this study is to develop and understand the role of certifying organizations in the development of more sustainable value chains. In order to answer the questions in this qualitative case study, representatives from the Svenskt Sigill, Axfood, Coop and ICA have been interviewed. Svenskt Sigill is a certification bodies that controls and develops standards in food and flowers. Axfood, Coop and ICA are actors in the grocery trade, which together have market shares corresponding to about 90 %. In order to achieve the purpose, a theoretical synthesis has been made that links sustainable development with business-economic theories on value chain and market channels. The result shows that the Svenskt Sigill has received requests to make a certification of land-based systems for seafood, from both producers and the trade. This means that the case study does not prove to be consistent with the traditional model of market channels. Instead, the market channel turned out to have a more dynamic design where there is an interaction between the actors. Having a certifying body like the Svenskt Sigill in a value chain makes it more dynamic and departs from its traditional linear form. They act as a controlling third party while linking trade with producers and to some consumers

KVINNOR I ACTION: EN KAMP MOT STEREOTYPEN. Framställning av kvinnor i actionfilmer och dess förändring över tid

Executive summary This study will explore the representation and portrayal of female protagonists' in action movies between 1990 and 2023. Movies play a significant role in reflecting and contributing to norms that shape our society, particularly gender norms. Historically, the action genre has been dominated by male protagonists and directors, commonly portraying men as strong and independent heroes. In contrast women have been limited to stereotypical roles. Awareness of gender equality in society has grown with time, however, the action genre has not adapted to this development at the same pace as society has. This study therefore addresses the following three research questions: 1. Has the representation of female characters in action movies changed between 1990 and 2023 and if so, how? 2. What role does a director's gender and creative decisions play in shaping these portrayals? 3. Does the portrayal of female characters differ between 1990 and 2023 in terms of visual depiction, roles and functions, relationships, and societal context? If so, how? The analysis adopts two theoretical frameworks. Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory (1975) emphasises female objectification in media, arguing that their representation is shaped for the male audience. This is relevant for the action genre since female characters are sexualized frequently. Representation theory further explores how media reflects and reinforces societal power structures, emphasizing the importance of analyzing representation in action films. Together, these theories provide a nuanced understanding for how gender norms in society influence both the content and creation of action films with regard to gender representation. When addressing our research questions, a mixed method approach was employed, using both a quantitative and a qualitative method. The quantitative analysis examined 160 action movies in total, with 80 movies from 1990 and 80 movies from 2023. This provided an overview of gender representation among protagonists and directors. To gain a deeper understanding, we performed a qualitative ethnographic analysis (ECA) of two movies with female protagonists, Nikita (1990) and To Catch a Killer (2023). Where we focused on visual portrayal, character roles and functions, relationships with other characters, as well as societal norms. Our findings reveal that the representation of women barely has developed over the three decades. The quantitative analysis showcased that 9 percent of the movies analysed in 1990 had female protagonists. A number that decreased to 7 percent in 2023. Male protagonists maintained their dominance with 81 percent in 1990 and 78 percent in 2023. Movies with both male and female protagonists increased from 10 to 15 percent. Regarding directors, the study noted that there was a scarce amount of women directing within the genre. They directed 2 percent of the movies in 1990 and 1 percent in 2023. Male directors dominated, accounting for 98 percent of the movies in 1990 and 2023. Movies with female protagonists were almost exclusively made by women, emphasizing the importance of a director’s gender in shaping narratives. The qualitative ethnographic analysis, on the other hand, displayed a remarkable contrast between movies in 1990 and movies in 2023 regarding the portrayal of female characters. Nikita reflects the norms of the 1990s, where Nikita the protagonist is being sexualized and dependent on male characters. This is consistent with Mulvey’s (1975) male gaze theory, which explains how women often are portrayed to cater to male audiences. The portrayal of Nikita highlights her appearance and relationships, ultimately limiting her independence. In contrast, To Catch a Killer follows the protagonist, Eleanor, with greater complexity. She is portrayed as intelligent and independent, navigating her role in a patriarchal workplace. However, even in the movie from 2023, the female protagonist is dependent on male characters. The results from our study show that despite the achieved progress in how nuanced the female characters are being depicted on screen, the action genre is still heavily influenced by traditional gender norms and structural inequalities. This study concludes that female protagonist representation has seen limited development over three decades. There is moreover still a male dominance in front and behind the camera. However, female directors are more likely to include female characters. While previous studies indicate a growing trend in the depiction of more nuanced female characters these changes are not reflected in the movie industry. This limited development reflects deeply ingrained societal norms within the action movie industry where male directors and actors continue to dominate. Our study highlights the demand from society for more inclusive storytelling that challenges traditional gender roles instead of showcasing it. Where the movie industry could play a significant role in challenging outdated societal structures. Upon completing this study, several areas can be acknowledged for future research for a more profound understanding of the topic. Streaming platforms were excluded in this research but for future research a study investigating streaming platforms, which are now dominating film consumption and the movie industry. Particularly how streaming platforms influence gender representation in movies since they, in comparison to companies that produce movies for the cinema, already have their customers who pay for their monthly subscription in advance. Therefore streaming platforms can take more risks regarding inclusivity and gender representation, since they do not have to attract a new audience for their movies. Our study concludes that there is a persistence of traditional gender norms but also that there is a potential for change within the action genre. However, we are yet to experience it or see a change worth acknowleding. The film industry has the tools to dismantle outdated societal norms and reflect broader inclusivity by not mirroring society but by addressing structural inequalities. The movie industry should therefore prioritize inclusive storytelling and underrepresented creators