Etude de la dynamique océanique de la mer des Salomon : modélisation numérique à haute résolution

The Solomon Sea is a semi-closed sea located in the subtropical Pacific Ocean. It connects subtropical water masses to the equatorial one through the low latitude western boundary currents (LLWBCs) and could potentially modulate the tropical Pacific climate at decadal time-scales. This region is not well documented because of few available observations. One of the main objective of this study is to set up a high resolution realistic ocean model of the Solomon at 1/36° that will allow to resolve a broad range of scales, especially the mesoscale and partially the sub-mesoscale processes. The general circulation and the mesoscale and sub-mesoscale variabilities are studied. The representation of the high resolution circulation is consistent with the available observations and is better resolved than in previous coarser resolution models. The mesoscale variability in the high resolution model is strongly increased compared to that of previous models and is in a good agreement with the observations. SST, SSH and kinetic energy wavenumber spectra in the Solomon Sea show spectral slopes closed to the surface quasi-geostrophy SQG theory.La mer des Salomon est une mer semi-fermée située dans le Pacifique subtropical. Elle connecte les masses d'eau des subtropiques à l'équateur via les courants de bord ouest de faibles latitudes (LLWBCs) et pourrait de ce fait moduler à l'échelle décennale le climat du Pacifique tropical. Très peu d'observations sont disponibles pour l'étude de cette région. Un des objectifs principaux de cette étude est la mise en place d'un modèle réaliste d'océan à haute résolution (1/36°) de la mer des Salomon permettant la résolution d'une large gamme d'échelles, particulièrement la mésoéchelle et marginalement la sous-mésoéchelle. La circulation générale est étudiée ainsi que la variabilité à mésoéchelle et à sous-mésoéchelle. La représentation de la circulation simulée par le modèle 1/36° est non seulement validée par les observations disponibles mais aussi améliorée par rapport à celle simulée par les modèles antérieurs. La variabilité mésoéchelle simulée dans le modèle à haute résolution est fortement augmentée par rapport à celle issue des modèles antérieurs et est en bon accord avec les observations. Des études spectrales en nombre d'onde de la température de surface, de la dénivellation de la surface libre et de l'énergie cinétique ont été réalisées dans la mer des Salomon et suggèrent que les pentes spectrales obtenues sont proches de la théorie classique de la quasi-géostrophie de surface (SQG)

Etude de la dynamique océanique de la mer des Salomon : modélisation numérique à haute résolution

The Solomon Sea is a semi-closed sea located in the subtropical Pacific Ocean. It connects subtropical water masses to the equatorial one through the low latitude western boundary currents (LLWBCs) and could potentially modulate the tropical Pacific climate at decadal time-scales. This region is not well documented because of few available observations. One of the main objective of this study is to set up a high resolution realistic ocean model of the Solomon at 1/36° that will allow to resolve a broad range of scales, especially the mesoscale and partially the sub-mesoscale processes. The general circulation and the mesoscale and sub-mesoscale variabilities are studied. The representation of the high resolution circulation is consistent with the available observations and is better resolved than in previous coarser resolution models. The mesoscale variability in the high resolution model is strongly increased compared to that of previous models and is in a good agreement with the observations. SST, SSH and kinetic energy wavenumber spectra in the Solomon Sea show spectral slopes closed to the surface quasi-geostrophy SQG theory.La mer des Salomon est une mer semi-fermée située dans le Pacifique subtropical. Elle connecte les masses d'eau des subtropiques à l'équateur via les courants de bord ouest de faibles latitudes (LLWBCs) et pourrait de ce fait moduler à l'échelle décennale le climat du Pacifique tropical. Très peu d'observations sont disponibles pour l'étude de cette région. Un des objectifs principaux de cette étude est la mise en place d'un modèle réaliste d'océan à haute résolution (1/36°) de la mer des Salomon permettant la résolution d'une large gamme d'échelles, particulièrement la mésoéchelle et marginalement la sous-mésoéchelle. La circulation générale est étudiée ainsi que la variabilité à mésoéchelle et à sous-mésoéchelle. La représentation de la circulation simulée par le modèle 1/36° est non seulement validée par les observations disponibles mais aussi améliorée par rapport à celle simulée par les modèles antérieurs. La variabilité mésoéchelle simulée dans le modèle à haute résolution est fortement augmentée par rapport à celle issue des modèles antérieurs et est en bon accord avec les observations. Des études spectrales en nombre d'onde de la température de surface, de la dénivellation de la surface libre et de l'énergie cinétique ont été réalisées dans la mer des Salomon et suggèrent que les pentes spectrales obtenues sont proches de la théorie classique de la quasi-géostrophie de surface (SQG)

Airborne LiDAR Measurements of Sea Surface Properties in the German Bight

Sea surface measurements are mainly gathered using satellite altimeter, buoy, and platform measurements. Satellite measurements typically have a coarse spatial resolution and need recalibration in coastal regions, whereas point measurements of buoys only represent limited areas around the measurement point because of the complex coastal bathymetry. Wave models (WAM) are used to expand the sparse observations in space and time. As a part of the project WIndPArk far-field (WIPAFF), which focused on wakes behind offshore wind farms, extensive airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) measurements of ocean waves in the German Bight were performed for more than 90 h. The LiDAR data processed for significant wave height can be used to validate and improve WAM models for complex areas and fill the observation gap between satellite altimeter and point measurements. This creates a detailed picture of the sea surface for coastal engineering and environmental applications. After introducing the measurement techniques and the data situation, intercomparisons between the available airborne measurements, buoy data, and WAM model output are presented to provide an insight into the potential of airborne LiDAR measurements for wave characterization and wave model validation

Coastal horizontal wind speed gradients in the North Sea based on observations and ERA5 reanalysis data

The transition from land to sea affects the wind field in coastal regions. From the perspective of near-coastal offshore wind farms, the coastal transition complicates the task of energy resource assessment by, for example, introducing non-homogeneity into the free wind field. To help elucidate the matter, we quantify the average horizontal wind speed gradients at progressively increasing distances from the German coast using two years of hourly ERA5 reanalysis data, and further describe the dependence of wind speed gradients on the measurement height, atmospheric stability, and season. A vertical wind lidar located on Norderney Island near the German mainland acts as our observational reference for the ERA5 data, where a good agreement ( R 2 = 0 . 9 3 $R^2 =\nobreak 0.93$ ) is found despite the relatively coarse ERA5 data resolution. Interestingly, the comparison of lidar data with the higher-resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) mesoscale model yields good but relatively weaker agreement ( R 2 = 0 . 8 5 $R^2 =\nobreak 0.85$ ). The ERA5 data reveal that, for flow over the North Sea originating from the German mainland from the south, the wind speed at 10 m (110 m) above sea level increases by 30 % (20 %) some 80 km from the coast on average, and by 5 % at larger heights. An increased stratification increases the horizontal wind speed gradient at 10 m above sea level but decreases it at 110 m. Case studies using satellite and flight measurements are first analyzed to help reveal some of the underlying mechanisms governing horizontal wind speed gradients, including cases of decreasing wind speed with increasing distance from the coast, in which stable flow of warm air over the colder sea leads to an overall deceleration of the flow. The accuracy of offshore resource assessment appears to profit from utilising the horizontal wind speed gradient information contained in ERA5 reanalysis data

Long-range modifications of the wind field by offshore wind parks – results of the project WIPAFF

This publication synthesizes the results of the WIPAFF (WInd PArk Far Fields) project. WIPAFF focused on the far field of large offshore wind park wakes (more than 5 km downstream of the wind parks) located in the German North Sea. The research project combined in situ aircraft and remote sensing measurements, satellite SAR data analysis and model simulations to enable a holistic coverage of the downstream wakes. The in situ measurements recorded on-board the research aircraft DO-128 and remote sensing by laser scanner and SAR prove that wakes of more than 50 kilometers exist under certain atmospheric conditions. Turbulence occurs at the lateral boundaries of the wakes, due to shear between the reduced wind speed inside the wake and the undisturbed flow. The results also reveal that the atmospheric stability plays a major role in the evolution of wakes and can increase the wake length significantly by a factor of three or more. On the basis of the observations existing mesoscale and industrial models were validated and updated. The airborne measurement data is available at PANGAEA/ESSD

Evaluation of a simple analytical model for offshore wind farm wake recovery by in situ data and Weather Research and Forecasting simulations

The recovery of offshore wind farm wakes in the German Bight was analyzed by a unique in situ data set, measured on‐board the research aircraft Dornier Do‐128 during the WIPAFF project in 2016 and 2017. These observations were used to validate a simple analytical wake recovery model in five case studies. The observed recovery rates were compared with the results of the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The airborne data show that the wake recovery can be described by an exponential function as expected by the analytical model and strengthens the hypothesis that the vertical downward moment flux has an important influence on the wake recovery. However, the predicted wake recovery rates (by the analytical model) do not always fully agree with the observations. Although, as a first‐order approximation, the model seems to perform well, further optimization has to be implemented to account for wind park layout, turbine induced turbulence, and horizontal momentum flux. WRF simulations reveal an exponential recovery, although the mesoscale model does not reproduce the correct atmospheric conditions for most of the cases. Therefore, the wake recovery rates estimated by WRF disagree with the measured data in most of the studied cases

Turbulent kinetic energy over large offshore wind farms observed and simulated by the mesoscale model WRF (3.8.1)

Wind farms affect local weather and microclimates; hence, parameterizations of their effects have been developed for numerical weather prediction models. While most wind farm parameterizations (WFPs) include drag effects of wind farms, models differ on whether or not an additional turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) source should be included in these parameterizations to simulate the impact of wind farms on the boundary layer. Therefore, we use aircraft measurements above large offshore wind farms in stable conditions to evaluate WFP choices. Of the three case studies we examine, we find the simulated ambient background flow to agree with observations of temperature stratification and winds. This agreement allows us to explore the sensitivity of simulated wind farm effects with respect to modeling choices such as whether or not to include a TKE source, horizontal resolution, vertical resolution and advection of TKE. For a stably stratified marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL), a TKE source and a horizontal resolution on the order of 5 km or finer are necessary to represent the impact of offshore wind farms on the MABL. Additionally, TKE advection results in excessively reduced TKE over the wind farms, which in turn causes an underestimation of the wind speed deficit above the wind farm. Furthermore, using fine vertical resolution increases the agreement of the simulated wind speed with satellite observations of surface wind speed

Evaluating mangroves as nature-based solutions for coastal protection under current and future sea level rise scenarios

Coastal hazards, such as erosion and flooding, pose significant threats to many coastal areas, and in extreme cases, have led to the decimation of some coastal communities. Historically, management has mostly focused on the use of grey infrastructure such as seawalls and groynes. However, these interventions are costly and can cause unintended consequences, promoting a shift toward Nature-based Solutions (NbS), such as the use of mangroves. Mangroves, particularly, have been proven to protect shorelines due to their ability to attenuate waves and trap sediment. However, there is limited research, particularly in data-deficient regions such as Ghana, West Africa, to support such NbS initiatives. This study explored the potential of mangroves as NbS to mitigate coastal erosion, using the 1D morphodynamic model XBeach. The baseline model was validated against measured coastal profiles, and the results show accurate predictions of sediment volume changes with an overall RMSE of 0.75 m. Based on the calibrations, we explored the effects of mature mangroves at varying densities on the berm and within the intertidal zone under current and projected sea level conditions, on coastal erosion. The results show a significant reduction in sediment volume erosion from 28 m3 to 0.9 m3 in the current situation, representing 97% protection; and from 468 m3 to 2.6 m3 under future sea level rise of 0.233 m by 2040, indicating 99% protection. Notably, high densities of mangroves, introduced on the berm, which is more practical for the area, provided up to 53% reduction in erosion for the current situation and 97% for the future. These scenario-based simulations demonstrate the potential of mangroves as a dynamic coastal defense strategy, with the approach providing a valuable tool for testing and optimizing NbS interventions

First in situ evidence of wakes in the far field behind offshore wind farms

Abstract More than 12 GW of offshore wind turbines are currently in operation in European waters. To optimise the use of the marine areas, wind farms are typically clustered in units of several hundred turbines. Understanding wakes of wind farms, which is the region of momentum and energy deficit downwind, is important for optimising the wind farm layouts and operation to minimize costs. While in most weather situations (unstable atmospheric stratification), the wakes of wind turbines are only a local effect within the wind farm, satellite imagery reveals wind-farm wakes to be several tens of kilometres in length under certain conditions (stable atmospheric stratification), which is also predicted by numerical models. The first direct in situ measurements of the existence and shape of large wind farm wakes by a specially equipped research aircraft in 2016 and 2017 confirm wake lengths of more than tens of kilometres under stable atmospheric conditions, with maximum wind speed deficits of 40%, and enhanced turbulence. These measurements were the first step in a large research project to describe and understand the physics of large offshore wakes using direct measurements, together with the assessment of satellite imagery and models