Removal of emerging contaminants for water reuse by membrane technology

Emerging trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) are broadly defined as any synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals that have not been routinely monitored but have the potential to enter the environment and cause known or suspected adverse ecological or human health effects [1]. Most of these TrOCs are from municipal, agricultural and industrial wastewater sources (see Figure 9.1). Their release to the environment had likely occurred for a long time but was only recently recognised by new and advanced analytical methods [2]. In some cases, emerging contaminants can also result from the synthesis of new chemicals either intentionally as a chemical of industrial interest or unintentionally as a by-product. A notable example of the latter is the N-nitrosamine group that can be formed as by-products due to a range of industrial activities including the production of rocket fuel, rubber and tobacco as well as water or wastewater disinfection by chloramine [3]

Ambient air pollution exposure and full-term birth weight in California

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Studies have identified relationships between air pollution and birth weight, but have been inconsistent in identifying individual pollutants inversely associated with birth weight or elucidating susceptibility of the fetus by trimester of exposure. We examined effects of prenatal ambient pollution exposure on average birth weight and risk of low birth weight in full-term births.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We estimated average ambient air pollutant concentrations throughout pregnancy in the neighborhoods of women who delivered term singleton live births between 1996 and 2006 in California. We adjusted effect estimates of air pollutants on birth weight for infant characteristics, maternal characteristics, neighborhood socioeconomic factors, and year and season of birth.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>3,545,177 singleton births had monitoring for at least one air pollutant within a 10 km radius of the tract or ZIP Code of the mother's residence. In multivariate models, pollutants were associated with decreased birth weight; -5.4 grams (95% confidence interval -6.8 g, -4.1 g) per ppm carbon monoxide, -9.0 g (-9.6 g, -8.4 g) per pphm nitrogen dioxide, -5.7 g (-6.6 g, -4.9 g) per pphm ozone, -7.7 g (-7.9 g, -6.6 g) per 10 <it>μ</it>g/m³particulate matter under 10 μm, -12.8 g (-14.3 g, -11.3 g) per 10 <it>μ</it>g/m³particulate matter under 2.5 μm, and -9.3 g (-10.7 g, -7.9 g) per 10 <it>μ</it>g/m³of coarse particulate matter. With the exception of carbon monoxide, estimates were largely unchanged after controlling for co-pollutants. Effect estimates for the third trimester largely reflect the results seen from full pregnancy exposure estimates; greater variation in results is seen in effect estimates specific to the first and second trimesters.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>This study indicates that maternal exposure to ambient air pollution results in modestly lower infant birth weight. A small decline in birth weight is unlikely to have clinical relevance for individual infants, and there is debate about whether a small shift in the population distribution of birth weight has broader health implications. However, the ubiquity of air pollution exposures, the responsiveness of pollutant levels to regulation, and the fact that the highest pollution levels in California are lower than those regularly experienced in other countries suggest that precautionary efforts to reduce pollutants may be beneficial for infant health from a population perspective.</p

Public health management of antiviral drugs during the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic: a survey of local health departments in California

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The large-scale deployment of antiviral drugs from the Strategic National Stockpile during the 2009 H1N1 influenza response provides a unique opportunity to study local public health implementation of the medical countermeasure dispensing capability in a prolonged event of national significance. This study aims to describe the range of methods used by local health departments (LHDs) in California to manage antiviral activities and to gain a better understanding of the related challenges experienced by health departments and their community partners.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>This research employed a mixed-methods approach. First, a multi-disciplinary focus group of pandemic influenza planners from key stakeholder groups in California was convened in order to generate ideas and identify critical themes related to the local implementation of antiviral activities during the H1N1 influenza response. These qualitative data informed the development of a web-based survey, which was distributed to all 61 LHDs in California for the purpose of assessing the experiences of a representative sample of local health agencies in a large region.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Forty-four LHDs participated in this study, representing 72% of the local public health agencies in California. While most communities dispensed a modest number of publicly purchased antivirals, LHDs nevertheless drew on their previous work and engaged in a number of antiviral activities, including: acquiring, allocating, distributing, dispensing, tracking, developing guidance, and communicating to the public and clinical community. LHDs also identified specific antiviral challenges presented by the H1N1 pandemic, including: reconciling multiple sources and versions of antiviral guidance, determining appropriate uses and recipients of publicly purchased antivirals, and staffing shortages.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic presented an unusual opportunity to learn about the role of local public health in the management of antiviral response activities during a real public health emergency. Results of this study offer an important descriptive account of LHD management of publicly purchased antivirals, and provide practitioners, policy makers, and academics with a practice-based assessment of these events. The issues raised and the challenges faced by LHDs should be leveraged to inform public health planning for future pandemics and other emergency events that require medical countermeasure dispensing activities.</p