Attorney Fee Shifting: A Bibliography

Marmara Sea and Black Sea connected with renowned Bosporus surround Istanbul, the city, which owns the privilege of bridging Europe and Asia. Besides such inland seas; forests and wetlands fragmented around and in the city maintain the natural cycle in the region. However, Istanbul as a fast developing urban area witnesses environmental issues like many other urban areas in global scale. Rapid economic and population growth of the city increase the pressure on above mentioned natural resources. Sustainable development of built environment is one of the best solutions in order to mitigate environmental damages of urban areas. The solution comes with green construction projects and systems yet the city and the market itself have barriers to block or slow the process of sustainable development. Identification of such barriers and reviewing international sustainable development practices paves the way for generating recommendations for environmentally friendly urban expansion in Istanbul. Survey targeting market professionals was conducted to identify sustainable development barriers in Istanbul and in order to address such barriers the thesis refers to conducted interviews and international practices presented in the literature review. The thesis draws economic, market and governmental recommendations which are particularly focused on financial incentives, raising awareness and enacting green laws involving all stakeholders of construction and real estate market

How cost-effective are direct payments to organic farms for achieving environmental policy targets?

Since 1993, the Swiss federal agricultural policy has been providing financial support for organic farming via area payments. Like other voluntary agri-environmental measures (AEM), these payments are intended as incentives for farmers to comply with defined production standards. Such payments lead to better environmental performance, as compliance with organic production standards averts negative and provides positive external effects compared to conventional or integrated farming (CRER, 2002). For instance, organic farming is largely not dependent on external inputs. This minimises the resource use of the farming system and limits the nutrient loads in the system, which in turn leads to less overfertilisation and reduced eutrophication risks involving nitrogen and phosphorus (Haas et al., 2001). Besides effectiveness, against the background of limited public budgets, efficiency in delivering environmental impacts plays a fundamental role in the further development of direct payment schemes (Swiss Federal Council, 2009). The targeting and tailoring of policies to achieve maximum effectiveness with a given budget is essential (OECD, 2007). It is therefore necessary to compare both environmental effects and the societal costs of AEM with each other in order to provide a basis for economically sound policy design (Pearce, 2005). Agricultural economists hold differing views on the cost-effectiveness of organic farming support payments. Von Alvensleben (1998) argues that the organic farming area support payments are not economically sound, as the policy goals could be achieved more efficiently using more flexible and targeted combinations of various AEM. The economic rationale behind this argument was introduced by Tinbergen (1956), who theorised that an efficient policy requires at least as many specific instruments as there are specific goals. However, the Tinbergen Rule may not apply fully in this case due to interactions between policies, conflicting goals and the limited determinability of different aspects of environmental performance. Furthermore, the multi-purpose character of organic agriculture could increase its cost-effectiveness due to its potentially lower transaction costs compared to targeted AEM (Dabbert et al., 2004). Empirical papers on this question lack. Thus, this paper aims to compare the cost-effectiveness of a) direct payments to organic farms and b) AEM, in providing environmental services. This is done, using the current Swiss agricultural policy scheme as a case study

Designs of multi-spacecraft swarms for the deflection of apophis by solar sublimation

This paper presents two conceptual designs of multi-spacecraft swarms used for deflecting Apophis. Each spacecraft is equipped with a solar concentrator assembly, which focuses the solar light, and a beaming system that projects a beam of light onto the surface of the asteroid. When the beams from each spacecraft are superimposed, the temperature on the surface is enough to sublimate the rock, creating a debris plume with enough force to slowly alter the orbit of Apophis. An overview of the dynamics, control and navigation strategies are presented along with preliminary system budgets

The UK NHS Economic Evaluation Database : Economic issues in evaluations of health technology

Objective: The U.K. NHS Economic Evaluation Database (EED) project is commissioned to identify papers on economic evaluations of health technologies and to disseminate their findings to NHS decision makers by means of structured abstracts that are available through a public database and the Cochrane Library. This paper discusses current issues relating to the economic aspects of producing NHS EED abstracts. Methods: A review of NHS EED was undertaken between 1994 and 1999 to determine the methodologies adopted and issues that influence the usefulness of economic evaluations. Methods adopted to improve the quality of NHS EED abstracts are also reported. Results: Eighty-five percent of NHS EED abstracts are cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs), 9.3% are cost-utility analyses (CUAs), and only 1.4% are cost-benefit analyses (CBAs). Of the total abstracts, 65.9% are based on single studies, 19.5% on reviews, 3.9% on estimates of effectiveness, and 10.7% on combinations of these sources. Models are utilized in 16.7% of CEAs, 60.2% of CUAs, and 20% of CBAs. Analyses of CBA studies reveal a degree of misuse of well-established definitions. NHS EED internal control mechanisms are reported that provide a means of ensuring that abstracts are based on sound academic principles. Conclusions: Most economic evaluations are conducted by means of CEA, followed by CUA, while CBA accounts for an extreme minority of cases. Single studies form the principal source of effectiveness data, although models are widely used, principally in CUA. The structure of NHS EED abstracts provides decision makers with the principal results and an interpretation of the relative strengths and weaknesses of economic evaluations

Shining light on the function of NPH3/RPT2-like proteins in phototropin signalling

No abstract available