Impacts of supermarkets on farm household nutrition in Kenya

Many developing countries are experiencing a food system transformation with a rapid growth of supermarkets. Research has shown that smallholder farmers can benefit from supplying supermarkets in terms of higher productivity and income. Here, we analyze impacts on farm household nutrition. Building on data from vegetable farmers in Kenya, we show that participation in supermarket channels has sizeable positive effects: calorie, vitamin A, iron, and zinc consumption are all increased by 15% or more. We also analyze impact pathways, using simultaneous equation models. Supermarket-supplying households have higher incomes, a higher share of land under vegetables, and a higher likelihood of male control of revenues. Furthermore, income and the share of land under vegetables have positive impacts, while male control of revenues has negative impacts on dietary quality. The total nutrition effects of supermarket participation could be even more positive if women were able to keep their control over farm revenues in the process of commercialization. The methods developed and used may also be useful for other impact studies to better understand agriculture-nutrition linkages

Nutrition effects of the supermarket revolution on urban consumers and smallholder farmers in Kenya

Food systems in developing countries are transforming, involving a rapid expansion of supermarkets. This supermarket revolution may affect dietary patterns and nutrition, but empirical evidence is scarce. The few existing studies have analyzed implications for food consumers and producers separately. We discuss a more integrated framework that helps to gain a broader understanding. Reviewing recent evidence from Kenya, we show that buying food in supermarkets instead of traditional outlets contributes to overnutrition among adults, while reducing undernutrition among children. For farm households, supplying supermarkets causes improvements in dietary quality. The results underline that supermarkets influence nutrition in multiple ways and directions

Technology development and field testing: access to credit to allow smallholder dairy farmers in central Kenya to reallocate concentrates during lactation

A field trial with smallholder dairy farmers in central Kenya was carried out to study the feasibility of reallocating concentrates as a means of increasing the profitability of milk production. Researchers designed the trial with extension officers, dairy co-operative and feed company staff to ensure that all stakeholders and key players were involved. Central to the design was the provision of feed on credit from the dairy co-operative to its members, the volunteer farmers involved in the study. The role of the research team was to present the technology to the farmers and monitor the implementation and impact. Farmers were not constrained in the way they chose to implement the recommendations, but the research team monitored any modifications as well as recording production parameters and characteristics of the farm and feed management systems likely to explain underlying variation. The recommendation was to feed 8 kg/day in early lactation, withdrawing concentrates completely after twelve weeks so that during the course of lactation the amount fed would be equivalent to the most frequent farmer practice, a flat rate of 2 kg/day. Actual quantities offered by most farmers were reported to be higher than in previous lactations, but varied from 2-10 kg/day. Although some decreased the amount offered between 8-12 weeks post lactation most continued with the higher levels until a drop in milk yield was observed. Milk production increased as a result of the intervention with a large part of the variation in milk yield (r2 = 0.55) reflecting the amount of concentrate offered. Month of calving and sampling also influenced the production response For many smallholder dairy farmers one of the key constraints to making technological changes expected to improve production is the lack of credit to allow them to make investments. The results so far available from our study showed that farmers were able to increase their milk yield as a result of the intervention, and that, as expected, the response depended on the level of concentrate offered

Gender violence in schools: taking the ‘girls-as-victims’ discourse forward

This paper draws attention to the gendered nature of violence in schools. Recent recognition that schools can be violent places has tended to ignore the fact that many such acts originate in unequal and antagonistic gender relations, which are tolerated and ‘normalised’ by everyday school structures and processes. After examining some key concepts and definitions, we provide a brief overview of the scope and various manifestations of gender violence in schools, noting that most research to date has focused on girls as victims of gender violence within a heterosexual context and ignores other forms such as homophobic and girl violence. We then move on to look at a few interventions designed to address gender violence in schools in the developing world and end by highlighting the need for more research and improved understanding of the problem and how it can be addressed

Factors associated with severity of neonatal sepsis on admission in Kenyatta hospital paediatric wards, Kenya: A descriptive cross-sectional study

Background: Neonatal sepsis is a major cause of neonatal mortality. In the year of 2012, it accounted for 44% of all deaths of under five years old children globally. Statistics indicate that 98% of the global, one million deaths as a result of neonatal sepsis occur in Africa. Neonatal sepsis contributes to 69% of neonatal mortality in Nigeria and 28% of neonatal mortality in Kenya. Objective: To establish factors associated with severity of neonatal sepsis among patients admitted in Kenyatta National Hospital Paediatric Wards. Design: The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional design. Setting: The study was carried out in paediatric wards of Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), Kenya. Subjects: Data was obtained from consenting mothers whose neonates had been admitted with neonatal sepsis and healthcare workers who worked within the paediatric wards. A total of 107 respondents were selected by systematic sampling method in which every alternate participant was selected. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather data on maternal and neonatal characteristics and environmental factors. In addition, three focused group discussions comprising nurses, doctors and clinical officers were conducted. Chi-square test was used to determine the factors associated with severity of neonatal sepsis (NNS) during admission. Results: Binary logistic regression analysis was performed to determine predictors of severe NNS. Of the 107 patients with neonatal sepsis, 37.4% had severe neonatal sepsis during admission. After multiple logistic regression analysis, the following factors were found to be independently associated with severe NNS: Neonates aged 8 to 28 days [AOR=2.89; 95%CI=1.07-7.99; P=0.047] compared to those neonates aged less than 8 days; Mothers with primary level of education [AOR=4.57; 95%CI=1.18-17.67; P=0.028] compared to those with tertiary education; primipara mothers [AOR=4.64; 95%CI=1.74-12.37; P=0.002] than multipara mothers and greenish amniotic fluid during labor [AOR=3.11; 95%CI=1.05-9.24; P=0.041] compared to clear amniotic fluid. Conclusion: The study found that severity of NNS was still high. The factors associated with severe NNS were; primiparity, maternal low economic status and poor antenatal clinic attendance. The study thus recommends that newborns at risk of developing severe neonatal sepsis should get prophylactic treatment and mothers be included in specialized programs geared towards reduction of the severity of NNS

Impact of Agricultural Diversification on Food Security among Smallholder Farming Community in Kilifi South Sub-County, Kenya

Food security is critical to the economic, social, religious, political and cultural development in Kenya. It is crucial to the attainment of economic growth, poverty reduction and sustainable development. Kilifi Sub-County is food insecure and this is a major hindrance to its rural development strategy. Rainfall unreliability, poor distribution and its erratic nature is major challenge to food security in this Sub-County. Despite past efforts put to increase food agricultural production in the Sub-County, food insecurity continues to be felt. Factors causing food insecurity are not clearly understood. The objective of this study is to: determine the influence of agricultural diversification as a livelihood strategy on food security status in Kilifi Sub-County. The research methodology involved a survey using a standard questionnaire which was administered to a sample size of 384 households selected using systematic random sampling procedure. The main data to be collected are indicators which include food availability and food access. Quantitative research method was used to capture data on agricultural diversification as a livelihood strategy among the smallholder farmers in Kilifi south Sub-County. To further enhance food security and improve food security status in Kilifi South Sub-county, engagement in agricultural diversification activities should be encouraged. The findings of this study would be beneficial to leaders, stakeholders and policy makers in decision making process pertaining suitable interventions in attainment of food security in Kilifi South Sub-county. The data was analyzed using multiple regression to measure the combined contribution of livelihood strategies. The analysis of the influence of agricultural diversification on food security revealed that 19% of the households kept cows, 13% kept sheep, 33% kept goats and 35% kept poultry. Additionally, 62% relied on maize, 9% on cassava, 2% on sorghum, 18% on cowpeas and 9% relied on coconut. The study revealed that the households which kept poultry were 35% food secure and those who planted maize and cowpeas were 62% and 18% food secure respectively. It was recommended that these variables were to be addressed by all stakeholders in order to improve the food security status

Off-Farm Activities and Food Security Status: A Study of Smallholder Farmers in Kilifi South Sub-County, Kenya

Food security is critical to the economic, social, religious, political and cultural development worldwide. This study goes deeper to investigate the role of off-farm as a livelihood strategy on food security in Kilifi South Sub-county. This Sub-county is one of the areas where food insecurity incidences are prevalent as a result of unpredictable rainfall patterns, sandy soils and high evaporation rate which as a result leads to numerous undesirable effects, such as frequent crop failure, high food commodity prices and famine. The study adopted survey design. The aim was to identify and analyze the role of off-farm activities on food security status among the smallholder farming community members in Kilifi South Sub-county. The objective of this study is to determine the influence of off-farm activities as a livelihood strategy on household food security status among the smallholder farming community in Kilifi South Sub-county. The study administered a standard questionnaire to a sample of 384. Sampling was done by use of systematic sampling procedure. Data was collected on food security status and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. From the information gathered through personal interviews, to determine the influence of participation in off-farm activities the results indicates that kiosks and green grocers were practiced by 32% food secure, while those selling fish were 25% food secure, those operating commercial motorcycling were 15% food insecure and lastly those selling charcoal were 28% food secure. It was therefore concluded that households involved in off-farm activities were food secure. This shows that although off-farm activities are not promising, they are important component of livelihood strategies. To further enhance food security and improve food security status in Kilifi South Sub-county, engagement in off-farm activities should be encouraged. The findings of this study would be beneficial to leaders, stakeholders and policy makers in decision making process pertaining suitable interventions in attainment of food security in Kilifi South Sub-county

Cell-free (RNA) and cell-associated (DNA) HIV-1 and postnatal transmission through breastfeeding

<p>Introduction - Transmission through breastfeeding remains important for mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) in resource-limited settings. We quantify the relationship between cell-free (RNA) and cell-associated (DNA) shedding of HIV-1 virus in breastmilk and the risk of postnatal HIV-1 transmission in the first 6 months postpartum.</p> <p>Materials and Methods - Thirty-six HIV-positive mothers who transmitted HIV-1 by breastfeeding were matched to 36 non-transmitting HIV-1 infected mothers in a case-control study nested in a cohort of HIV-infected women. RNA and DNA were quantified in the same breastmilk sample taken at 6 weeks and 6 months. Cox regression analysis assessed the association between cell-free and cell-associated virus levels and risk of postnatal HIV-1 transmission.</p> <p>Results - There were higher median levels of cell-free than cell-associated HIV-1 virus (per ml) in breastmilk at 6 weeks and 6 months. Multivariably, adjusting for antenatal CD4 count and maternal plasma viral load, at 6 weeks, each 10-fold increase in cell-free or cell-associated levels (per ml) was significantly associated with HIV-1 transmission but stronger for cell-associated than cell-free levels [2.47 (95% CI 1.33–4.59) vs. aHR 1.52 (95% CI, 1.17–1.96), respectively]. At 6 months, cell-free and cell-associated levels (per ml) in breastmilk remained significantly associated with HIV-1 transmission but was stronger for cell-free than cell-associated levels [aHR 2.53 (95% CI 1.64–3.92) vs. 1.73 (95% CI 0.94–3.19), respectively].</p> <p>Conclusions - The findings suggest that cell-associated virus level (per ml) is more important for early postpartum HIV-1 transmission (at 6 weeks) than cell-free virus. As cell-associated virus levels have been consistently detected in breastmilk despite antiretroviral therapy, this highlights a potential challenge for resource-limited settings to achieve the UNAIDS goal for 2015 of eliminating vertical transmission. More studies would further knowledge on mechanisms of HIV-1 transmission and help develop more effective drugs during lactation.</p&gt