L'enfant "riche": oublié des droits de l'enfant?

La Convention relative aux droits de l’enfant, adoptée en 1989 par l’Organisation des Nations Unies assure aux enfants des droits, notamment ceux d’être protégés contre toute forme de violence, d’être entendus et d’exprimer leur opinion sur toute question les concernant, et d’être traités dans la dignité sans discrimination de race, de sexe ou autre considération sociale. Les catégories d’enfants, situées aux extrêmes de l’échiquier social sont plus exposées au risque de voir leurs droits bafoués, comme cela a bien été démontré pour les enfants vivant dans une grande pauvreté. L’idée peut paraître saugrenue, mais des risques comparables existent-ils aussi pour les enfants les plus riches ? Répondre à cette question est l’objectif de ce travail

DIP-STR: Highly Sensitive Markers for the Analysis of Unbalanced Genomic Mixtures.

Samples containing highly unbalanced DNA mixtures from two individuals commonly occur both in forensic mixed stains and in peripheral blood DNA microchimerism induced by pregnancy or following organ transplant. Because of PCR amplification bias, the genetic identification of a DNA that contributes trace amounts to a mixed sample represents a tremendous challenge. This means that standard genetic markers, namely microsatellites, also referred as short tandem repeats (STR), and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) have limited power in addressing common questions of forensic and medical genetics. To address this issue, we developed a molecular marker, named DIP-STR that relies on pairing deletion-insertion polymorphisms (DIP) with STR. This novel analytical approach allows for the unambiguous genotyping of a minor component in the presence of a major component, where DIP-STR genotypes of the minor were successfully procured at ratios up to 1:1,000. The compound nature of this marker generates a high level of polymorphism that is suitable for identity testing. Here, we demonstrate the power of the DIP-STR approach on an initial set of nine markers surveyed in a Swiss population. Finally, we discuss the limitations and potential applications of our new system including preliminary tests on clinical samples and estimates of their performance on simulated DNA mixtures

VZV retinal vasculitis without systemic infection: diagnosis and monitoring with quantitative polymerase chain reaction

To report a case of unilateral varicella zoster virus (VZV) retinal vasculitis aspect in an immunocompetent child without systemic infection. Clinically, no signs of retinal necrosis or frosted branch vasculitis were present. This is an observational case report. Quantitative PCR was performed on the aqueous humor (AH) using primers specific for herpes virus (cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex virus 1-2, and VZV). The patient was treated with intravenous acyclovir, intravitreous ganciclovir, and oral valacyclovir. A positive quantitative PCR result was found for VZV DNA (1.72×106 viral copies/ml) in the AH. After 6months, PCR of the AH was negative. Herpes viruses are involved in the pathogenesis of isolated retinal vasculitis. This case demonstrates that quantitative PCR is useful to detect viral DNA in AH and to monitor the viral activity and the therapeutic respons

Development of a real-time PCR for the specific detection of Waddlia chondrophila in clinical samples

Waddlia chondrophila is considered as an emerging human pathogen likely involved in miscarriage and lower respiratory tract infections. Given the low sensitivity of cell culture to recover such an obligate intracellular bacteria, molecular-based diagnostic approaches are warranted. We thus developed a real-time PCR that amplifies Waddlia chondrophila DNA. Specific primers and probe were selected to target the 16S rRNA gene. The PCR specifically amplified W. chondrophila but did not amplify other related-bacteria such as Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, Simkania negevensis and Chlamydia pneumoniae. The PCR exhibited a good intra-run and inter-run reproducibility and a sensitivity of less than ten copies of the positive control. This real-time PCR was then applied to 32 nasopharyngeal aspirates taken from children with bronchiolitis not due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Three samples revealed to be Waddlia positive, suggesting a possible role of this Chlamydia-related bacteria in this settin

Performance characteristics of a rapid immunochromatographic assay for detection of pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus in children

Rapid tests for diagnosis of influenza are valuable assets in the management of influenza in pediatric patients. However, test performance fluctuates with virus subtypes. We assessed the test characteristics of Influenzatop®, a rapid immunochromatographic influenza A and B test, in detecting pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) in children up to 18years of age, using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) as the gold standard. Three hundred and one pediatric outpatients with influenza-like illness were included into the study. Overall sensitivity of Influenzatop® was 64% (95% confidence interval (CI) 56-71%) but increased to 92% (95% CI, 80-97%) when performed between 24 and 48h after onset of symptoms. Positive Influenzatop® results among RT-PCR-positive patients were associated with higher viral load. No significant variation in test performance could be detected when analyzed by age and high versus low prevalence period. Overall test specificity was 99% (95% CI, 95-100%); positive and negative predictive values were 98% (95% CI, 93-99%) and 70% (95% CI, 63-76%), respectively. Conclusion: Influenzatop® rapid influenza test is a sound tool in the diagnosis of H1N1 in pediatric patients when employed 24-48h after onset of symptom

Increase of Fungal Endocarditis in Children

Background:: Infective endocarditis (IE) is a rare and feared infection that mainly occurs in patients with underlying cardiac disease or altered function of the immune system. Recent epidemiological data on both sepsis and nosocomial infections indicate a rise in gram-negative bacterial and fungal infection, particularly in patients requiring critical care support. This study sought to characterize the change in the spectrum of IE encountered in a single pediatric tertiary care center during the last 18 years, to evaluate emergence of fungal IE and to identify contributing factors. Patients and Methods:: Review of all cases of IE diagnosed between January 1986 and August 2003 at a single university children's hospital. Patients were distributed between two equal time periods and compared according to the era of IE diagnosis. Results:: In 43 patients, 44 episodes of IE were identified with most cases occurring in children with congenital or acquired heart disease. The annual number of diagnosed cases fluctuated during the study (mean 2.4 cases/year). Blood or specimen cultures were positive in 34 cases (77%) with gram-positive organisms most frequently observed (n = 20, 44.4%). Fungal IE cases (n = 9, 20%) occurred preferentially during the second period (p < 0.03), and were more common in children with noncardiac diseases (p = 0.023). Factors associated with fungal IE were the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics (p < 0.001) and the presence of an infected central venous catheter (p = 0.01). Overall mortality did not differ between the two eras. Conclusion:: The incidence of fungal IE seems to have significantly increased in more recent years. Use of broadspectrum antibiotics for prolonged time or/and central venous catheters were identified as predisposing factors to fungal infective endocarditi

Ganciclovir for Severe Cytomegalovirus Primary Infection in an Immunocompetent Child

Described here is the unusual case of a previously healthy 17-month-old girl who developed severe cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease with prolonged fever and hepatitis. The severity of her illness required hospitalization and prompted antiviral treatment. Short-term intravenous ganciclovir treatment was associated with immediate and sustained resolution of the symptoms as well as a sharp decrease of CMV viremia. This observation suggests that antiviral therapy might be considered in select cases of severe primary CMV infection in immunocompetent childre

Prevalence and diversity of Chlamydiales and other amoeba-resisting bacteria in domestic drinking water systems.

A growing number of human infections incriminate environmental bacteria that have evolved virulent mechanisms to resist amoebae and use them as a replicative niche. These bacteria are designated amoeba-resisting bacteria (ARB). Despite the isolation of these ARB in various human clinical samples, the possible source of infection remains undetermined in most cases. However, it is known that the ARB Legionella pneumophila, for instance, causes a respiratory infection in susceptible hosts after inhalation of contaminated water aerosols from various sources. The Chlamydiales order contains many ARB, such as Parachlamydia acanthamoebae or Simkania negevensis, previously implicated in human respiratory infections with no identified contamination sources. We thus investigated whether domestic water systems are a potential source of transmission of these Chlamydiales to humans by using amoebal culture and molecular methods. Other important ARB such as mycobacteria and Legionella were also investigated, as were their possible amoebal hosts. This work reports for the first time a very high prevalence and diversity of Chlamydiales in drinking water, being detected in 35 (72.9%) of 48 investigated domestic water systems, with members of the Parachlamydiaceae family being dominantly detected. Furthermore, various Legionella and mycobacteria species were also recovered, some species of which are known to be causal agents of human infections

Disease burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children up to 5years of age in two Swiss cantons: paediatrician- and hospital-based surveillance

Rotavirus gastroenteritis (RV GE) is a leading cause of diarrhoea in young children. The purpose of this epidemiological surveillance was to measure the disease burden of RV GE among children <5years of age in two regions of Switzerland, Geneva and Lucerne. One hospital and four paediatricians participated per region. The surveillance lasted from December 2006 to June 2007. The population denominator for calculation of the RV GE incidence rate was the average of the overall study population <5years of age under surveillance during the surveillance period. At the study sites, 513 children with GE were presented. Stool sample was collected and examined in 341 cases, of which 130 were RV positive (38.1%). Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained for 113 RV positive subjects. The overall RV GE incidence rate was 0.97% in Lucerne [lower incidence interval (LCI), 0.71%; upper incidence interval (UCI), 1.2%] compared with 0.65 and in Geneva (LCI, 0.50%; UCI, 0.81%). Disease severity assessments using the Vescari score showed that the RV GE episodes were more severe in Lucerne than in Geneva (14.05 ± 3.05 vs 12.85 ± 2.87), which was confirmed by a higher hospitalisation rate in Lucerne at the study visit (82.9% vs 23.6%). More children had fever in Geneva than in Lucerne (42.9% vs 26.8%), and more children were hospitalised during the follow-up period in Geneva than in Lucerne (14.5% vs 2.5%). Genotyping of RV positive stool samples revealed that both G1 and P8 were the most prevalent types in both regions. There was a statistically significant difference in the distribution frequency of G1 between the two regions (p = 0.039). Assessment of health economic data confirmed the economic burden of RV GE episodes. In conclusion, RV GE episodes are a health burden as well as an economic burden also for the children in a developed country such as Switzerlan