Depositional record of historic lahars in the Whangaehu Gorge, Mt. Ruapehu

Mt. Ruapehu is one of the most lahar prone volcanoes in the world, having both a crater lake and six small glaciers upon its 2797 m summit. The major outlet for the crater lake, the Whangaehu Gorge, has hosted over 46 historic lahars. However, the low preservation of debris flow deposits, as a result of frequent remobilisation on steep slopes, allows for the detailed description of only 9 lahar events over the last 150 years. Field investigation, historic aerial photos, two airborne LiDAR surveys and direct measurements have been utilised to describe the sedimentology, geomorphology and distribution of historic lahar deposits in the first 11 km of the Whangaehu Gorge. Inundation maps have been created for 1945, 1953, 1975, September 1995, October 1995, March 2007 and September 2007. Grain size distribution, componentry and geomorphology of the 1861, 1975, September 1995, October 1995, 1999 and 2007 lahar deposits have been compared. The lahar deposits are massive, very poorly sorted, silty gravels that form a series of unconsolidated terraces. The limited sediment sources in the steep sided Whangaehu Gorge, including minor historic eruption products, results in significant recycling of lahar deposits. However, the deposits can be differentiated by proportions of lithological components and in some cases anthropogenic debris. The abundance of hydrothermally altered material reflects the role of Crater Lake in lahar formation, although, some of these materials (gypsum, sulphur and snow) are only temporary. Non-cohesive debris flows and occasional snow slurry lahars have been formed by a range of triggering mechanisms associated with and independent of eruptions. Lahars have been formed in the Whangaehu Valley as the result of ejected crater lake water and associated snow melt (1975, September 1995 and September 2007), as well as the progressive displacement of lake water as a result of lava dome growth (1945) and uplift of the lake floor (1968). Inter-eruption lahars occur as a result of Crater Lake outburst floods (1861, 1953 and March 2007) and remobilisation by precipitation and the collapse of tephra laden snow (October 1995 and 1999). The comparison of historic lahars also reflects the range of lahar magnitudes experienced historically on Ruapehu. The most recent Crater Lake outburst of March 2007, with a peak discharge of 1700-2500 m3/s is the second largest recorded lahar, behind only the eruption-generated lahar of April 1975 with a peak discharge of 5000-7500 m3/s. Lahar mitigation can subsequently be based on lahar generation and incorporation of the vast amounts of data collected before and after the 2007 outburst flood. Recent remobilisation and phreatic activity suggest the significant under-representation of small volume events like rain-generated and snow slurry lahars in the geologic record

Building Ice-Age Askja: Processes, Products, and Paleoclimate

Austurfjöll is the largest glaciovolcanic construct at Askja Volcano, the best exposed and largest basaltic central volcano in Iceland. The massif records the repeated interaction of basaltic fissure-dominated eruptions with a 600-900 m thick Pleistocene ice sheet in Iceland. The Austurfjöll deposits serve as an important proxy record for ice presence and thickness, supplementing the limited terrestrial glacial record in Iceland. The model of the construction of the 3.62 km3 glaciovolcanic massif is the first to outline in detail and date the growth and evolution of a long-lived polygenetic ice-confined central volcano. The model is based on lithologic descriptions, petrologic investigations, textural studies, unspiked K-Ar dating, volatile saturation pressures based on FTIR analysis of water content in glass, and remote sensing-based mapping. The massif is composed of basal basaltic pillow lava sheets, dominantly subaqueously-deposited vitriclastic deposits erupted from overlapping fissure ridges, and accumulations of gravity-driven deposits in inter-ridge depositional centers. The ridges are locally capped by emergent to subaerial tephra and subaerial lava flows. Detailed textural studies of sequences of in-situ transitions from pillow lavas through breccias to overlying lapilli tuffs are interpreted as examples of phreatomagmatic explosions triggered by initial magmatic exsolution and fragmentation at water depths > 600 m. A stratigraphy for Austurfjöll is established and consists of one interglacial unit, six glaciovolcanic units, and two glaciogenic sedimentary units established through chemostratigraphy and field mapping. Eruptive units are numbered chronologically, with glacial units designated Dm: Unit 1 (A and B), Dm1, Unit 2, Dm2, Unit 3, Unit 4, Unit 5, Unit 6 and Unit 7. Diamictite deposits and emergent facies are described for the first time at Austurfjöll. Two eruptive units were dated radiogenically by unspiked K-Ar methods to 71 +/- 7 ka (Unit 2) and 29 +/- 8 ka (Unit 3). Ice presence is inferred from glacial, subaerial, and subglacial lithofacies including coherent margined volcaniclastic dikes (CMVDs) that are interpreted as the result of basaltic intrusions into ice-cemented sediments. The deposits described from Austurfjöll reflect a history of interglacial, ice-confined subaqueous, subglacial and emergent eruptions with a dynamic Pleistocene ice sheet over at least 40 ka

Maar-diatreme geometry and deposits: Subsurface blast experiments with variable explosion depth

Basaltic maar-diatreme volcanoes, which have craters cut into preeruption landscapes (maars) underlain by downward-tapering bodies of fragmental material commonly cut by hypabyssal intrusions (diatremes), are produced by multiple subsurface phreatomagmatic explosions. Although many maar-diatremes have been studied, the link between explosion dynamics and the resulting deposit architecture is still poorly understood. Scaled experiments employed multiple buried explosions of known energies and depths within layered aggregates in order to assess the effects of explosion depth, and the morphology and compaction of the host on the distribution of host materials in resulting ejecta, the development of subcrater structures and deposits, and the relationships between them. Experimental craters were 1–2 m wide. Analysis of high-speed video shows that explosion jets had heights and shapes that were strongly influenced by scaled depth (physical depth scaled against explosion energy) and by the presence or absence of a crater. Jet properties in turn controlled the distribution of ejecta deposits outside the craters, and we infer that this is also reflected in the diverse range of deposit types at natural maars. Ejecta were dominated by material that originated above the explosion site, and the shallowest material was dispersed the farthest. Subcrater deposits illustrate progressive vertical mixing of host materials through successive explosions. We conclude that the progressive appearance of deeper-seated material stratigraphically upward in deposits of natural maars probably records the length and time scale for upward mixing through multiple explosions with ejection by shallow blasts, rather than progressive deepening of explosion sites in response to draw down of aquifers

A Web-Based Geotechnical GIS

A web-based Geotechnical Geographic Information System (GeoGIS) was developed and tested for the Alabama Department of Transportation. This web-based system stores geotechnical information about transportation projects, such as subsurface data, construction drawings, and design information. Typically, this information is in a report or plan sheet format, but raw geotechnical data can also be accommodated in the GeoGIS. The goal of this system is to provide easy access and storage for all geotechnical and subsurface structural information from across a state. Access through a secure web interface allows for keyword searches and interactive map selection. The web-based GeoGIS has four geotechnical layers (project, bridge, foundation, and soil boring) that can be displayed on a road map, aerial photos, or USGS 7.5 minute quadrangles. For testing purposes the GeoGIS was populated with multiple document types, formats, and sizes. In all cases, the system performed above expectations.</jats:p

Rheumatologists as an endangered species: A proposal for change

No Abstract.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/37791/1/1780350602_ftp.pd

Ice-confined construction of a large basaltic volcano—Austurfjöll massif, Askja, Iceland

Austurfjöll is the largest basaltic glaciovolcanic massif at Askja volcano (Central Iceland), and through detailed studies of its volcanological and geochemical characteristics, we provide a detailed account of the sequence and structure of the ice-confined construction of a large Icelandic basaltic volcano. In particular, Austurfjöll represents a geometry of vents, and resulting glaciovolcanic morphology, not previously documented in ice-confined basaltic volcanoes. Austurfjöll was constructed during two major phases of basaltic volcanism, via seven eruptive episodes through disperse fissure-dominated eruptions. The earliest episode involved a rare and poorly exposed example of subaerial activity, and this was succeeded by six episodes involving the eruption of ice-confined pillow lavas and numerous overlapping fissure eruptions of phreatomagmatic tephra. Evidence of local subaerial lavas and tephras indicates the local growth of eruptive centers above englacial lake levels, and subsequent flooding, but no prolonged subaerial activity. Localized ice-contact facies, paleowater levels, and diamictons indicate the position and thickness of the ice was variable during the construction of Austurfjöll, and eruptive activity likely occurred in multiple and variable level meltwater lakes during the last glacial period. Lithofacies evidence including gradational transitions from effusive to explosive deposits, superposition of fragmental facies above coherent facies, and drainage channels suggest that changes in eruptive style were driven largely by external factors such as drainage and the increasing elevation of the massif. This study emphasizes the unique character of Austurfjöll, being composed of large pillow lava sheets, numerous (> 40) overlapping glaciovolcanic tindars, and only localized emergent deposits, as a product of its prolonged ice-confined eruptive history, contrasts with previous descriptions of tuyas and tindars

The acoustic signatures of ground acceleration, gas expansion, and spall fallback in experimental volcanic explosions

Infrasound and high-speed imaging during a series of field-scale buried explosions suggest new details about the generation and radiation patterns of acoustic waves from volcanic eruptions. We recorded infrasound and high-speed video from a series of subsurface explosions with differing burial depths and charge sizes. Joint observations and modeling allow the extraction of acoustic energy related to the magnitude of initial ground deformation, the contribution of gas breakout, and the timing of the fallback of displaced material. The existence and relative acoustic amplitudes of these three phases depended on the size and depth of the explosion. The results motivate a conceptual model that relates successive contributions from ground acceleration, gas breakout, and spall fallback to the acoustic amplitude and waveform characteristics of buried explosions. We place the literature on infrasound signals at Santiaguito Volcano, Guatemala, and Sakurajima and Suwonosejima Volcanoes, Japan, in the context of this model

The effects of the host-substrate properties on maar-diatreme volcanoes: experimental evidence.

While the relationship between the host-substrate properties and the formation of maar-diatreme volcanoes have been investigated in the past, it remains poorly understood. In order to establish the effects of the qualitative host-substrate properties on crater depth, diameter, morphological features, and sub-surface structures, we present a comparison of four campaigns of experiments that used small chemical explosives buried in various geological media to simulate the formation of maar-diatremes. Previous results from these experiments have shown that primary variations in craters and sub-surface structures are related to the scaled depth (physical depth divided by cube root of blast energy). Our study reveals that single explosions at optimal scaled depths in stronger host materials create the largest and deepest craters with steep walls and the highest crater rims. For single explosions at deeper than optimal scaled depths, the influence of material strength is less obvious and non-linear for crater depth, and non-existent for crater diameter, within the range of the experiments. For secondary and tertiary blasts, there are no apparent relationships between the material properties and the crater parameters. Instead, the presence of pre-existing craters influences the crater evolution. A general weakening of the materials after successive explosions can be observed, suggesting a possible decrease in the host-substrate influence even at optimal scaled depth. The results suggest that the influence of the host-substrate properties is important only in the early stage of a maar-diatreme (neglecting post-eruptive slumping into the open crater) and decreases as explosion numbers increase. Since maar-diatremes reflect eruptive histories that involve tens to hundreds of individual explosions, the influence of initial substrate properties on initial crater processes could potentially be completely lost in a natural system