Sectoral Issues and the Multilateral Framework for Trade in Services: An Overview

summary Increased opportunity for developing countries to expand trade in services is one objective of attempts to liberalise trade in services. However, efforts in this direction are continually impeded by the specificity required in trying to effect a workable multilateral framework, The heterogeneity of the services sector does not lend itself to an easily negotiable framework. This article addresses two major issues on this topic: (i) the market structure of trade in services and the basis of comparative advantage of developed countries; (ii) the desirability of a multilateral negotiating framework which takes into account the strategic importance of particular service sectors to growth and development and the present state of international trade and draft segments of the set. Résumé Vue d'ensemble sur les problèmes de secteurs et le cadre multilatéral pour les industries de services L'augmentation des possibilités pour les pays en voie de développement d'élargir le commerce des industries de services constitute l'objectif des tentatives de libéralisation du commerce des industries de services. Cependant, les efforts allant dans cette direction sont continuellement entravés par le besoin d'indications précises que demande la réalisation d'une structure multilatérale. L'hétérogénéité du secteur des services ne se prête pas à la formation d'une structure aisément négotiable. Cet article aborde deux problèmes principaux liés à ce thàme: 1) La structure du marché des industries de services et les conditions des avantages reliatifs des pavs developpés 2) L'avantage d'une structure multilatérale de négotiations, qui tient compte de l'importance stratégique de certains secteurs des services pour le développement, et de l'état actuel du commerce international et des segments sommaires de l'ensemble. Resumen Una revisión de los problemas sectoriales y el marco multilateral para el comercio de servicios Uno de los objetivos de los intentos de los países en desarrollo de liberalizar el comercio de los servicios es mejorar sus oportunidades en este rubro. No obstante, la especificidad requerida para establecer un marco multilateral viable conspira constantemente en contra de los esfuerzos que se despliegan en este sentido. La heterogeneidad del sector servicios, por si misma, no se presta fácilmente para un marco negociable. Este artículo enfoca dos problemas básicos en este tópico: i) la estructura de mercado del comercio de servicios y la base de las ventajas comparativas de los países en desarrollo. ii) la conveniencia de un marco multilateral negociable que considere la importancia estratégica de determinados sectores de servicios y, segmentos de éste en el crecimiento y desarrollo y el estado actual del comercio internacional

Cis and trans regulatory mechanisms control AP2-mediated B cell receptor endocytosis via select tyrosine-based motifs.

Following antigen recognition, B cell receptor (BCR)-mediated endocytosis is the first step of antigen processing and presentation to CD4+ T cells, a crucial component of the initiation and control of the humoral immune response. Despite this, the molecular mechanism of BCR internalization is poorly understood. Recently, studies of activated B cell-like diffuse large B cell lymphoma (ABC DLBCL) have shown that mutations within the BCR subunit CD79b leads to increased BCR surface expression, suggesting that CD79b may control BCR internalization. Adaptor protein 2 (AP2) is the major mediator of receptor endocytosis via clathrin-coated pits. The BCR contains five putative AP2-binding YxxØ motifs, including four that are present within two immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs). Using a combination of in vitro and in situ approaches, we establish that the sole mediator of AP2-dependent BCR internalization is the membrane proximal ITAM YxxØ motif in CD79b, which is a major target of mutation in ABC DLBCL. In addition, we establish that BCR internalization can be regulated at a minimum of two different levels: regulation of YxxØ AP2 binding in cis by downstream ITAM-embedded DCSM and QTAT regulatory elements and regulation in trans by the partner cytoplasmic domain of the CD79 heterodimer. Beyond establishing the basic rules governing BCR internalization, these results illustrate an underappreciated role for ITAM residues in controlling clathrin-dependent endocytosis and highlight the complex mechanisms that control the activity of AP2 binding motifs in this receptor system

Latin American immigrants in Indianapolis: Perceptions of prejudice and discrimination

The article focuses on immigrants’ interactions with the Indiana natives, with emphasis in the city of Indianapolis and its suburbs. More specifically, this study aims at providing an understanding of the experiences of Latin American immigrants with special attention to perceptions of prejudice and discrimination and to feelings of social exclusion. A substantial proportion of Latin American immigrants interviewed indicated that they considered Indiana natives to be prejudiced and that they had personally experienced discrimination. The study reveals specific examples of discrimination experienced by the immigrants at the work place, in housing, in stores, restaurants and by various service providers. The results of the study demonstrate the relevance of the normative and power resource theories to explain prejudice and discrimination

Prognostic model to predict postoperative acute kidney injury in patients undergoing major gastrointestinal surgery based on a national prospective observational cohort study.

Background: Acute illness, existing co-morbidities and surgical stress response can all contribute to postoperative acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients undergoing major gastrointestinal surgery. The aim of this study was prospectively to develop a pragmatic prognostic model to stratify patients according to risk of developing AKI after major gastrointestinal surgery. Methods: This prospective multicentre cohort study included consecutive adults undergoing elective or emergency gastrointestinal resection, liver resection or stoma reversal in 2-week blocks over a continuous 3-month period. The primary outcome was the rate of AKI within 7 days of surgery. Bootstrap stability was used to select clinically plausible risk factors into the model. Internal model validation was carried out by bootstrap validation. Results: A total of 4544 patients were included across 173 centres in the UK and Ireland. The overall rate of AKI was 14·2 per cent (646 of 4544) and the 30-day mortality rate was 1·8 per cent (84 of 4544). Stage 1 AKI was significantly associated with 30-day mortality (unadjusted odds ratio 7·61, 95 per cent c.i. 4·49 to 12·90; P < 0·001), with increasing odds of death with each AKI stage. Six variables were selected for inclusion in the prognostic model: age, sex, ASA grade, preoperative estimated glomerular filtration rate, planned open surgery and preoperative use of either an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker. Internal validation demonstrated good model discrimination (c-statistic 0·65). Discussion: Following major gastrointestinal surgery, AKI occurred in one in seven patients. This preoperative prognostic model identified patients at high risk of postoperative AKI. Validation in an independent data set is required to ensure generalizability

Cytomegalovirus microRNAs Facilitate Persistent Virus Infection in Salivary Glands

Micro (mi)RNAs are small non-coding RNAs that regulate the expression of their targets' messenger RNAs through both translational inhibition and regulation of target RNA stability. Recently, a number of viruses, particularly of the herpesvirus family, have been shown to express their own miRNAs to control both viral and cellular transcripts. Although some targets of viral miRNAs are known, their function in a physiologically relevant infection remains to be elucidated. As such, no in vivo phenotype of a viral miRNA knock-out mutant has been described so far. Here, we report on the first functional phenotype of a miRNA knock-out virus in vivo. During subacute infection of a mutant mouse cytomegalovirus lacking two viral miRNAs, virus production is selectively reduced in salivary glands, an organ essential for virus persistence and horizontal transmission. This phenotype depends on several parameters including viral load and mouse genetic background, and is abolished by combined but not single depletion of natural killer (NK) and CD4+ T cells. Together, our results point towards a miRNA-based immunoevasion mechanism important for long-term virus persistence

Maternal colonisation and early-onset neonatal bacterial sepsis in The Gambia, West Africa: a genomic analysis of vertical transmission.

OBJECTIVES: To define bacterial aetiology of neonatal sepsis and estimate prevalence of neonatal infection from maternal genital tract bacterial carriage among mother-newborn pairs. METHODS: We carried out a cross-sectional study of newborns with clinical sepsis admitted to neonatal wards of three hospitals in The Gambia. Neonatal blood cultures and maternal genital swabs were obtained at recruitment. We used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to explore vertical transmission for neonates with microbiologically confirmed bloodstream infection by comparing phenotypically matched paired neonatal blood culture and maternal genital tract bacterial isolates. RESULTS: We enrolled 203 maternal-newborn pairs. Two-thirds (67%; 137/203) of neonates presented with early-onset sepsis (days 0 - 6 after birth) of which 26% (36/137) were due to a clinically-significant bacterial pathogen. Blood culture isolates from newborns with early-onset sepsis due to Staphylococcus aureus (n=5), Klebsiella pneumonia (n=2), and Enterococcus faecalis (n=1), phenotypically matched their maternal genital tract isolates. Pairwise SNV comparisons showed differences of 12 - 52 SNVs only between maternal and newborn Staphylococcus aureus isolates, presumably representing vertical transmission with a transmission rate of 14% (5/36). CONCLUSIONS: We found low prevalence of vertical transmission of maternal genital tract colonisation in maternal-newborn pairs for early-onset neonatal sepsis in west African context. Identifying infection acquisition pathways among newborns is essential to prioritise preventive interventions, which could be targeted at mother or infection control in the hospital environment, depending on the major pathways of transmission