Theorizing voice:Performativity, politics and listening

The aim of this article is to develop a theory of voice. I claim that it is productive to use 'voice' as a theoretical tool that encompasses a speaker's performance and body gestures. At the same time, this paper argues that it is insufficient to focus on the speaker. While there is recognition that voice(s) are a necessary part of a functioning political, democratic structure, this article reveals that any research on voice needs to also consider the politics involved in listening. Listening not only nuances the study of voice, but also includes those in positions of dominance whose power can be forgotten if discussion focuses exclusively on the political and social struggles that the disempowered undertake in order to make themselves heard. I draw on ethnographic research that was carried out in 2011 and 2012 in Botswana with indigenous Ncoakhoe (also known in literature as 'San') to show how voice was used (performativity) but also how the audience was often restricted. This reduced the political effects of even Ncoakhoe who are educated and employed Christians, i.e. Ncoakhoe who have subscribed to the dominant moral code. My research suggests that a theory of voice is not only about speaking, participating or making yourself heard but also must consider the implications of using a voice that relies upon dominant structures to legitimize it. When Ncoakhoe speak, who listens?</p

Ten commandments for Setswana to be a resourceful vehicle of development in Botswana

When most African countries became independent in the early 1960’s, they were driven by a strong  nationalistic desire to be united, sovereign and developed. After realizing that many languages were spoken  within their borders, they had to come up with language policies, which would meet their aspirations. Although many countries selected the demographically and socio-politically dominant indigenous languages to be  national media, in most cases, the national language remained functionally symbolic. Botswana is one of the African countries which selected its dominant indigenous language, Setswana, to be the national language (Republic of Botswana, 1994).This paper examines the position of Setswana, whose role has remained largely symbolic, as a national  language (Bagwasi, 2012; Chebanne et al., 1993). However, in order to ensure maximal utilization of the national medium, as a vehicle for development and mass mobilization, Botswana needs to accord Setswana more control of the country’s socio-political, economic and technological domains for sustainable  development. The paper proposes ten possible measures, that it terms “commandments”, which ought to be followed for Setswana to become a resourceful and effective national and primary official language.Keywords: capacity planning, national language, norm planning, official language, status plannin

Fighting A Losing Battle: Assessing The Impact Of Mother-Tongue Education Advocacy In A Hostile Environment

Most countries in Africa are multilingual with an average of about 40 languages per country. This has given rise to a complex state of multilingualism, with various patterns of language use (Batibo, 2005). One major challenge has been to decide on the medium of instruction that would be not only effective, but also acceptable to the relevant communities. Although UNESCO (1953) and a number of other educational organizations have persistently advocated for mother-tongue education, such advocacy has made little impact in most countries. This paper takes stock of some of the issues and arguments involved. It then shows how mother-tongue education remains an elusive goal in most African countries. The main thrust of this paper is to assess and highlight the major reasons, which have rendered mother-tongue advocacy in most African countries, a great challenge, to the extent that many countries accept mother-tongue education in spirit, but not in practice. The paper looks at some of the compromises that many countries have taken.Keywords: mother-tongue education, multilingualism, medium ofinstruction, advocacy, plurilingualis

The Last Kick of a Dying Horse: Preserving Ethnic Identity in Shisukuma Greeting System

The phenomenon of language shift is common in situations where there is a demographic or status imbalance between ethnic groups. Usually the speakers of the disadvantaged languages will progressively shift to the more socio-economically or politically privileged languages. Such language shift will involve identity shift in its various forms. This paper examines the patterns and processes of language shift based on a study carried out in Tanzania in which the traditional greeting systems in Kiswahili, the national language of Tanzania, and Shisukuma, a minority Tanzanian language, were investigated. The main purpose of the study was to find evidence that would support the claim that ethnonymic identity is the last form of identity to be lost when speakers of one language are shifting to another language. The study revealed that ethno-linguistic groups, like Basukuma (Shisukuma speakers), have put in place a complex greeting system as a strategy to preserve their ethnonymic identity, embedded in their traditional clan system. This system has made it possible for the Shisukuma speakers to identify their origins and parentage. However, many Basukuma are no longer keen to know the origin or parentage of the people around them, particularly the younger generation.Keywords: language domination, language shift, autonymic identity, ethnonymic entit

The Nature and Origin of Sex-Related Euphemisms in Setswana

The aim of this study is to investigate sex-related euphemisms in Setswana. Although sex matters, as embarrassing phenomena, are not usually talked about in Setswana communities, they have recently been brought to the open by the incidence of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The assumption in this study is therefore that, with more open discourse of sex-related matters in Botswana, more euphemisms have been created to camouflage the embarrassing nature of the various referents in this field. The sex-related matters include private parts, sexual activities, sexual secretions, sexual diseases and related phenomena. This study describes the nature, origin, and types of these euphemisms and considers their place and role in the social interaction of the people of Botswana. Keywords: Sex-related euphemisms, Setswana, HIV/AIDS MARANG Vol. 18 2008 pp. 69-8