The Fall of the Berlin Wall: Its Causes and Consequences

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, resulted from a complex pattern of causes, including historical contingencies. One of these was Günter Schabowski’s ill-phrased announcement of free travel for GDR citizens, another Mikhail Gorbachev’s access to power in 1985 and his promise of “perestroika”. At the core of the matter lies “the German question” as the key issue of controversies, in the early phase of the Cold War. Even after 1955, when the two post-war German states had been integrated into the military blocs, the German question remained on the diplomatic agenda. The erection of the Berlin Wall in 1961, however, signified that the “German problem” had been shelved. After the Cuban crisis in October 1962, when the two superpowers refrained from nuclear confrontation, they appeared to enter into an era of détente. Facing up to these facts, West Berlin´s Mayor Willy Brandt and, foremost, his adviser Egon Bahr developed their concept of “Ostpolitik”. Its long-term perspective was to change the status quo of German division by accepting the status quo, i.e. the consequences of WW II, the Oder-Neisse border to Poland, the reality of the blocs, and the East German state under Communist rule. It was based on the assumption a) that détente was an irreversible process and b) that the GDR, displaying economic stability at that time, while remaining an indispensable element in the Soviet bloc, would be disposed to forms of cooperation. The dialectics of history proved otherwise. Geopolitical rivalries between the superpowers continued to exist. In 1979, the Soviet Union’s military intervention in Afghanistan coincided with its opening another round in the arms race focussing on intermediate-range missiles in Central Europe. Both decisions propitiated the interior crisis of the Soviet Union, due to technological backwardness and military overburdening of its state-run economy. Gorbachev’s attempts at reform proved ineffective, his proclamation of glasnost encouraged dissident movements in Eastern Central Europe, e.g. the independent peace movement in the GDR, to resist their regimes. Gorbachev’s renunciation of the “Brezhnev doctrine” motivated reform-minded governments in Poland and Hungary to test the limits of Soviet hegemony. The decisive factor was the comprehensive crisis in the GDR: an unproductive economy based on external debts, a decrepit infrastructure, ecological damage, an oppressive dictatorship rejecting reform, dissident activists challenging the regime. All this, in the autumn of 1989, led to the mass exodus of East Germans fleeing across Hungary’s open border to Austria. The upshot of this course of events was the collapse of the Berlin Wall. Germany’s reunification in 1990 entailed the creation of the European Union, an in-between of a confederation and a federal union of states. Its raison d´être is to a) provide a structure of peace in Europe b) to avert German hegemony on the Continent based on its power potential. Nonetheless, apprehensions concerning Germany’s future role in Europe have not altogether vanished. With regard to its immigration policy, some observers speak of a new type of “moral hegemony”. Last but not least, Merkel´s decision in 2015 admitting millions of migrants to Europe, tipped the scale in favour of Brexit

The dialect dictionary

In this chapter, the making of dialect dictionaries is discussed. We dwell on the user-oriented metalexicographical considerations, and on the ensuing macrostructural and microstructural options. Special attention is devoted to fieldwork procedures for unwritten language varieties. We try and answer the basic questions of field work: What?, Where?, Who?, How? And How much

Leben und Werk von Friedrich G. Friedmann : drei Vorträge im Rahmen eines Symposiums der Jüdischen Kulturwochen 1995 am 16. November 1995 an der Universität Augsburg

Prof. Dr. Reinhard Blum, Rektor: Vorwort ; Prof. Dr. Manfred Hinz: Friedrich Georg Friedmanns Süditalien-Studien ; Herbert Ammon: Friedrich Georg Friedmann - Die Erfahrung der amerikanischen Kultur ; Dr. Adam Zak SJ: "Ein Jude, wer ist das?" Vom jüdischen Selbstverständnis Friedrich Georg Friedmann

Effect of Leucine on the Pyridine Nucleotide Contents of Islets and on the Insulin Released—Interactions In Vitro with Methylene Blue, Thiol Oxidants, and p-Chloromercuribenzoate

In the presence of glucose (2 mg/ml), leucine (10 mM) noticeably increased islets' NADPH contents as well as the NADPH:NADP ratio; the changes occurred as soon as 1 min after its addition. NADH concentrations were also increased by leucine. The NADPH:NADP ratio as well as insulin release stimulated by glucose plus leucine were markedly decreased by methylene blue. The thiol oxidants diamide and tert-butyl hydroperoxide also inhibited insulin secretion in response to glucose plus leucine. Employing the perfused pancreas technique, the insulin-releasing action of p-chloromercuribenzoate was further enhanced by leucine. The combined effects were inhibited by tert-butyl hydroperoxide, however. Our data suggest that the insulin-releasing action of leucine depends on the islets' NADPH and reduced glutathione (GSH); in addition, leucine may contribute to insulin secretion by increasing the islet NADPH:NADP ratio and the NADH:NAD ratio. From the data, we assume that the observed increase of NADPH may lead via GSH to an increase in the number of such thiol groups in the β-cell membrane, which are believed to be related to stimulation of insulin release and, thus, to increase the sensitivity of the β-cell to stimulation by glucose and/or leucine.</jats:p

Health literacy and the patient with heart failure--implications for patient care and research: a consensus statement of the Heart Failure Society of America.

BackgroundLow health literacy compromises patient safety, quality health care, and desired health outcomes. Specifically, low health literacy is associated with decreased knowledge of one's medical condition, poor medication recall, nonadherence to treatment plans, poor self-care behaviors, compromised physical and mental health, greater risk of hospitalization, and increased mortality.MethodsThe health literacy literature was reviewed for: definitions, scope, risk factors, assessment, impact on health outcomes (cardiovascular disease and heart failure), and interventions. Implications for future research and for clinical practice to address health literacy in heart failure patients were summarized.ResultsGeneral health literacy principles should be applied to patients with heart failure, similar to others with chronic conditions. Clinicians treating patients with heart failure should address health literacy using five steps: recognize the consequences of low health literacy, screen patients at risk, document literacy levels and learning preferences, and integrate effective strategies to enhance patients' understanding into practice.ConclusionAlthough the literature specifically addressing low health literacy in patients with heart failure is limited, it is consistent with the larger body of health literacy evidence. Timely recognition of low health literacy combined with tailored interventions should be integrated into clinical practice

Health literacy and the patient with heart failure--implications for patient care and research: a consensus statement of the Heart Failure Society of America.

BackgroundLow health literacy compromises patient safety, quality health care, and desired health outcomes. Specifically, low health literacy is associated with decreased knowledge of one's medical condition, poor medication recall, nonadherence to treatment plans, poor self-care behaviors, compromised physical and mental health, greater risk of hospitalization, and increased mortality.MethodsThe health literacy literature was reviewed for: definitions, scope, risk factors, assessment, impact on health outcomes (cardiovascular disease and heart failure), and interventions. Implications for future research and for clinical practice to address health literacy in heart failure patients were summarized.ResultsGeneral health literacy principles should be applied to patients with heart failure, similar to others with chronic conditions. Clinicians treating patients with heart failure should address health literacy using five steps: recognize the consequences of low health literacy, screen patients at risk, document literacy levels and learning preferences, and integrate effective strategies to enhance patients' understanding into practice.ConclusionAlthough the literature specifically addressing low health literacy in patients with heart failure is limited, it is consistent with the larger body of health literacy evidence. Timely recognition of low health literacy combined with tailored interventions should be integrated into clinical practice