Supercritical fluid extraction of pesticides in sediment from the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and determination by gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC-ECD) and mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

The study reports supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of pesticides in sediment samples from the Okavango Delta, the headwaters of which originate from Angola and traverse through Namibia into Botswana. An acetone modifier and fractional extraction by pressure ramping gave recoveries ranging from 55 to 86% for the 15 pesticides studied. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), aldrin and 4, 4-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (4, 4’-DDT) were identified at concentration ranges of 1.1 to 30.3, 0.5 to 15.2 and 1.4 to 55.4 μg/g, respectively by gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC-ECD) and were unequivocally confirmed by gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-ToF-MS). The study indicated an increase of pesticide concentrations in the direction of water flow from the Panhandle (point of entry) to the lower delta. The results show that there are ramifications associated with activities either upstream or downstream; hence close monitoring is required for the long-term preservation of the delta.Keywords: organochlorine pesticides; sample preparation; modifier; static extraction; dynamic extraction; fractional extraction

Monitoring and simulating threats to aquatic biodiversity in the Okavango Delta: field and laboratory methods

The Okavango Delta, situated in northwest Botswana between E22.0°-E24.0° and S18.0°-S20.5°, is the world's second largest inland wetland region. The Delta is actually an alluvial fan and is fed mainly by the Okavango River whose catchment lies largely in the highlands of central Angola (Fig 1). The river flows south-east through the Caprivi Strip in eastern Namibia, before entering into Botswana as a large river, some 200 m in width. The size of the Delta changes significantly throughout the year - during the dry season, the Delta is approximately 7,000 km2, and more than doubles in size to over 15,000 km^{2} during the wet season (Ramberg et al. 2006)

The Okavango; a river supporting its people, environment and economic development

The Okavango basin comprises the Cuito and Cubango active catchment areas in Angola, in addition to the Kavango–Okavango non-active catchment in northern Namibia and Botswana. The Okavango River water and its ecosystem resources are critically important sources of livelihoods for people in the basin. Pressures from livelihoods and development are already impacting on the environment. These pressures may increase in the future due to the rapid increase in population, the peace process and associated resettlement activities in Angola, and major development initiatives in Botswana and Namibia. For instance, possible future increase in water abstraction from the Okavango River may affect the long-term environmental sustainability of the Okavango Delta by minimizing channel shifting and thereby reducing spatial biodiversity. The paper argues that while conservation of the natural environment is critical, the pressing development needs must be recognized. The reduction of poverty within the basin should be addressed in order to alleviate adverse effects on the environment. The paper recommends that the development of sustainable tourism and community-based natural resource management initiatives may be appropriate strategies for reaching the Millennium Development Goals of poverty alleviation and achievement of environmental sustainability in the Okavango Basin. These initiatives have a comparative advantage in this area as demonstrated by the performance of the existing projects

Spatial and Seasonal Variability in Surface Water Chemistry in the Okavango Delta, Botswana: A Multivariate Approach

The annual flood pulse in the Okavango Delta (Botswana), has a major influence on water chemistry and habitat. We explore spatial and temporal patterns in a suite of chemical variables, analysed from 98 sample points, across four regions, taken at different stages of the flood cycle. The major pattern in water chemistry is characterised by an increasing gradient in ionic concentration from deep-water sites in the Panhandle to more shallow, distal regions to the south. Concentrations of cations, anions, dissolved organic carbon, and SiO2 are significantly higher in the seasonally inundated floodplains than in permanently flooded regions. Several variables (including Na and total nitrogen) significantly increase from low flood to high flood, while others (including HCO3, SiO2, and Cl) increase in concentration, initially between low flood and flood expansion, before declining at maximum flood extent. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that hydrological variables (water depth, flow velocity, flood frequency, and hydroperiod class) significantly explain 17% variation in surface water chemistry. Predictions of increasing flood volume in the near future may result in a decline in alkalinity and dilution of DOC. Our study provides an important baseline from which to monitor future change in the Delta

Bassins de rift à des stades précoces de leur développement: l'exemple du bassin de Makgadikgadi-Okavango-Zambezi, Botswana et du bassin Sud-Tanganyika (Tanzanie et Zambie). Composition géochimique des sédiments: traçeurs des changements climatiques et tectoniques

This thesis presents the results of a multidisciplinary study of sediments, with an emphasis on geochemistry, with the following objectives : 1) improve our understanding of geochemical processes occurring as a result of erosion, transport and deposition in two rift b asin in their early stage of development; 2) reconstruct environments in these two regions of the rift during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene and 3) define sedimentary and geochemical criteria to allow us to discriminate tectonic setting and climate change in nascent and early stage rift basins. The two basins chosen to represent early stagerift development were 1) the Makgadikgadi-Okavango-Zambesi basin located in NW Botswana and 2) the Mpulungu Basin, located at the south-western extremity of Lake Tanganyika. The geochemical study of sediments and water of the Okavango Delta revealed the presence of elevated arsenic in the groundwater occuring as a result of the dissolution of oxides under reducing conditions. The presence of elevated arsenic in the sediments in linked to organic rich clays, deposited under lacustrine conditions during periods of higher rainfall and possible impoundment of the river by the Thamalakane Fault. The geochemical results were used as a proxy fro climate change in the Mpulungu basin. The results indicate a remarkable excursion which coincides with the Younder Dryas event. This environmental event appears to be the most important event in southern lake Tanganyika during the period 23-3 ka, which is characterized by the transport of weathered material into the basin due to a change in vegetation cover in the catchment area.Cette étude utilise une approche multidisciplinaire à dominante géochimique, avec plusieurs objectifs : 1) mieux comprendre les processus géochimiques au cours du cycle de genèse des formations sédimentaires (érosion-transport-accumulation) pour des stages précoces de l'évolution d'un bassin de rift : 2) reconstruire les environnements caractérisant ces deux régions du Rift Est-africain au cours du Pélistocène et de l'Holocène et 3) définir des critères sédimentologiques et géochimiques permettant de discriminer l'activité tectonique et les changements climatiques au cours de l'évolution de ces deux bassins du rift. Les deux bassins considérés comme illustrant deux stages précoces successifs de l'ouverture d'un bassin de rift, sont : 1) le Bassin de Makgadikgadi-Okavango-Zambeze (MOZ), situé dans la région nord-ouest du Botswana et 2) le Bassin de Mpulungu, qui constitue l'extrémité sud-est du Bassin du Lac Tanganyika (Tanzanie et Zambie). L'étude géochimique des sédiments et des eaux du Bassin de l'Okavango a révélé la présence anormale d'arsenic dans les eaux souterraines du delta résultant de la dissolution sous conditions réductrices dans les sédiments. La présence de l'arsenic dans les sédiments est liée aux argiles riches en matière organique déposés dans les conditions lacustres résultant de périodes à pluviométrie plus importante qu'aujourd'hui et du barrage des écoulements de la rivière de l'Okavango apr la faille de Thamalakane. Les données géochimiques ont été utilisées comme marqueur deschangements du climat dans le bassin de Mpulungu. Les sédiments révèlent une excursion remarquable qui coïncide avec le Younger Dryas. Cet événement environnemental apparaît comme le plus important dans la région sud du lac Tanganyika pour la période 23-3 ka, caractérisée par un apport de matériel altéré dans le bassin, suite à une modification importante du couvert végétal

Characterization of arsenic occurrence in the water and sediments of the Okavango Delta, NW Botswana

Detailed chemical analyses were performed on surface water, groundwater and sediment samples collected from the Okavango Delta between February and November 2003 in order to examine the distribution and geochemistry of naturally occurring As in the area. Surface water in the Okavango Delta, which is neutral to slightly acidic and has high dissolved organic C (DOC), was found to be slightly enriched in As when compared to a global value for stream water. Of the 20 new borehole analyses from this project, six were found to have values exceeding 10 μg/L, the current World Health Organization provisional guideline value for As. The results from field speciation indicate that As(III) is slightly more predominant than As(V). There is a positive correlation between As and pH and between As and DOC in the groundwater samples. For the sediment samples, there is a positive correlation between As and Co, As and Fe, As and loss on ignition (LOI) and between As and the percent fines in the sample. Reductive dissolution of oxides and hydroxides in the sediments with organic C as an electron acceptor is the likely mechanism for the release of As from the sediments into the groundwater

Deltamethrin in sediment samples of the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Deltamethrin concentrations were determined in 35 sediment samples collected from three different habitats: channel, lagoon and pool sites from Xakanaxa in the Okavango Delta, NW Botswana. The samples were Soxhlet-extracted in acetone to extract deltamethrin residues and subsequently cleaned-up with silica gel 60. The final determination was carried out with a gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The sample work-up and determination gave deltamethrin recoveries of 54 to 97%, and detection limits of 0.004 mg/kg dw. The concentration of deltamethrin residues in the sediment samples collected from the three sprayed areas in the Okavango delta ranged between 0.013 and 0.291 mg/kg dw, with the highest concentrations observed in samples obtained from the pool sites. Analysis of samples for organic matter content showed percentage total organic carbon (% TOC) ranging between 0.19% and 8.21%, with samples collected from the pool having the highest total organic carbon. The concentrations of deltamethrin residues and the % TOC in sediment samples showed a similar trend with the highest levels recorded in the pool samples. These data confirmed that a simple method based on GC-ECD, after Soxhlet extraction, was robust enough to enable quantification of deltamethrin in the sediments, because comparable results were obtained with a more sophisticated system consisting of a GC coupled to a mass spectrometer with a time of flight (TOF) analyser. Water SA Vol.32 (4) 2006: pp.483-48