2025 and 2030 CO2 emission targets for Light Duty Vehicles

Road transport is the main contributor to transport emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the European Union (EU), with passenger cars and light commercial vehicles (LCVs) accounting for almost 15% of the total emissions. In order to gradually decarbonise the fleet, the EU has established fleet-wide CO2 targets for annually registered vehicles, assigning manufacturer specific targets based on their average vehicle mass. From 2025, new EU fleet-wide targets will be established applying a percentage reduction to a reference 2021 EU fleet-wide target. This value is calculated from the vehicles’ CO2 emissions for 2020 and the mass and registration figures of 2021. In 2025, the reduction will be 15% for both passenger cars and LCVs, while for 2030 it will increase to 55% and 50%, respectively, following the recent adoption of the more ambitious targets. This report provides the robust method used to calculate the EU fleet-wide targets in 2025 and 2030 and the parameters that will define the manufacturers’ specific target line from 2025 onwards. The EU fleet-wide targets calculated for 2025 are 93.6 g/km for passenger cars and 153.9 g/km for LCVs. For 2030, the EU fleet-wide targets will be reduced to 49.5 g/km for passenger cars and 90.6 g/km for LCVs. The slope of the target line for 2025 will be -0.0144 g/(km∙kg) for passenger cars and 0.0848 g/(km∙kg) for LCVs, while for 2030 the slope will be -0.0076 g/(km∙kg) and 0.0499 g/(km∙kg), respectively. An indicative 2025 average test mass of 1,609.6 kg for cars and 2,163.0 kg for LCVs, was calculated.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable, Smart and Safe Mobilit

Impact of WLTP introduction on CO2 emissions from M1 and N1 vehicles: Evidence from type-approval and 2018 EEA data

The analysis of official type-approval documents covering the period September 2017 - August 2018 and which were uploaded in the ETAES platform has given a first insight of the impact of the introduction of the WLTP procedure on declared and measured CO2 emissions. The first topic analysed was the ratio between declared WLTP and NEDC emissions. On average, this ratio is higher for diesel ICE vehicles compared to gasoline ICE vehicles. The mean ratio for diesel VH was 1.26 for M1 category and 1.28 for N1 and for VL 1.18 for M1 and 1.22 for N1 category. The 2018 EEA data showed an average ratio of 1.25 for M1 and 1.27 for N1 category. For gasoline ICE vehicles the mean ratio for VH is 1.16 for M1 1.19 for N1 category and for VL 1.13 for M1 and 1.14 for N1 category. The 2018 EEA data show an average ratio of 1.19 for M1 1.16 for N1 category. The highest average ratio for diesel and gasoline VH was calculated for OEM_3 group and for VL for OEM_15 (diesel) and OEM_3 (gasoline) groups. The 2018 EEA registrations data show the highest average ratio coming from OEM_3 (diesel) and OEM_11 (gasoline) groups. For NOVC-HEVs and OVC-HEVs the data sets analysis were much smaller and any conclusions drawn should be treated with caution. The mean WLTP/NEDC ratio for NOVC-HEVs was 1.22 (VH) and 1.18 (VL), which is higher than that of gasoline ICE vehicles. For all OVC-HEVs analysed (weighted-combined CO2 emissions) the ratio for VH is 1.13, but with a range from 0.34 to 1.44 and for VL the average was 1.03 (range: 0.31-1.32). In the 2018 EEA data NOVC-HEVs and OVC-HEVs could not be distinguished. Analysis of Emission type-approval documents (ETA) revealed that for the majority of IP families analysed (70% for VH and 73% for VL) the declared WLTP values were less than 5% higher than the WLTP measured values. In 26% of cases for VH and 23% for VL the over-declaration was between 5% and 10%. In only 4% of cases for VH and 4% for VL OEM’s over-declaration was above 10% (but always below 20%). In total, 18% (266) of IP families are type-approved with only vehicle high (VH), which leads to higher CO2 emissions compared to the interpolation approach. Some OEMs are only type-approving VH (OEM_13, OEM_16, OEM_17, OEM_18, OEM_19, OEM_21, OEM_22, OEM_23, OEM_24, OEM_25, OEM_27, OEM_28), but except OEM_13, the other OEM groups have very low registrations. OEM groups with high registrations (more than half million) and high % of IP families with only VH are: OEM_7 (24%), OEM_5 (22%), OEM_2 (20%), OEM_9 (7%), and OEM_3 (6%). OEM_12 and OEM_10 are another OEMs with high % of IP families with only VH (91% and 73%, respectively) and registrations higher than 200,000. Various inconsistencies and issues have been identified in the data collected. Such inconsistencies should be addressed to ensure correct implementation of the legislation and a level playing field.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor

Analysing the potential of a simulation-based method for the assessment of CO2 savings from eco-innovative technologies in light-duty vehicles

[EN] Mandatory targets are set in Europe for Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions of light-duty vehicles. EU law recognises the potential of certain innovative technologies to contribute to reducing CO2 emissions. Vehicle systems and innovations are becoming increasingly complex, and the accurate quantification of their benefits increasingly difficult. The study investigates the potential of the CO2MPAS simulator to serve this purpose. Two innovative technologies were studied, Light-emitting diode (LED) lighting systems, efficient alternators (EA), and their combination. The model was validated on detailed test results from eight vehicles. A total of 452 passenger cars, for which test data were available, were subsequently simulated using CO2MPAS simulator. The mean simulated CO2 savings was 0.91gCO2/km (LED lights), 0.98 gCO2/km (EA), and 1.78 gCO2/km (combined). Results show that simulated CO2 savings were comparable to those calculated using the existing standardised method. For gasoline and diesel vehicles respectively, the difference in CO2 savings between simulated and existing method was 2.8% and 0.14% in the LED lights case, and 0.6% and 0.67% in the alternator case. In the combined case, the difference was calculated to be 1.7% and 0.34%. Similar approaches could be used in the future for accurately capturing the benefits of more complex technologies.Authors would like to thank Mr Filip Francois, Ms Susanna Lindvall, and Mr Sotirios Kakarantzas of DG Climate Action for their valuable comments. A special thanks goes to Dr Vincenzo Arcidiacono who guided in the targeted sample CO2MPAS simulations which gave the starting point for this work, and to Dr Giuseppe Di Pierro who provided insight and expertise that greatly improved this work.Gil-Sayas, S.; Komnos, D.; Lodi, C.; Currò, D.; Serra, S.; Broatch, A.; Fontaras, G. (2022). Analysing the potential of a simulation-based method for the assessment of CO2 savings from eco-innovative technologies in light-duty vehicles. Energy. 245:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.12323811424

Risk assessment for the 2024 In-Service Verification (ISV) of CO2 emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles

Article 13 of Regulation (EU) 2019/631 requires the type-approval authorities to verify the CO2 emission and fuel consumption values of light-duty vehicles in-service. Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/2867 sets out the guiding principles and criteria for defining the procedures for that verification, while Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/2866 determines the actual verification procedures. Article 3(4) of that Implementing Regulation requires the Commission to set out a methodology for assessing the risk that in-service verification (ISV) families may include vehicles with a deviation in the CO2 emission values and to publish each year a report describing that methodology and listing those families with the highest risk of including such vehicles. JRC has been tasked to perform the risk assessment on behalf of the Commission. When assessing the risk, at least the elements mentioned in Article 3(3) of the Implementing Regulation need to be taken into account, when available. The type-approval authorities must use the Commission’s risk assessment as a basis for selecting the families for their in-service verification. This is the first annual report describing the methodology for the assessment, and the main findings. The risk assessment methodology described is based on a Composite Risk Index (CRI), which combines the probability and severity of a specific occurrence. Probability levels are determined based on the total number of new vehicles from the in-service verification family that have been placed on the Union market. For the severity determination, the data collected pursuant to Article 14 of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/392 and through the Commission’s market surveillance test campaigns have been utilized. The real-world data, as referred to in Article 3(3)(e) of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/2866, has not yet been used for this risk assessment due to the limited number of such data submitted so far. This report also identifies the ISV families with the highest risk of including vehicles with a deviation in CO2 emissions values. These families are labelled as ISV families with the first testing priority in 2024. Based on the risk assessment, a total of 131 interpolation families, representing 106 ISV families, have been identified as having such high risk. Additionally, a significant number of interpolation families were reported as part of the annual CO2 monitoring for light-duty vehicles, but could not be found amongst those reported to the Commission under Article 14 of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/392. Therefore, a number (66) of those missing interpolation families with the highest vehicle registration numbers in the last three years has been selected as high risk, and labelled as ISV families with the first testing priority for the 2024 in-service verification. To further support the vehicle selection for the 2024 in-service verification, this report also presents a random selection of additional IP families both registered and not registered in Database of In-service verification of CO2 Emissions (DICE). Finally, all remaining families that are not registered in DICE are also presented.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable, Smart and Safe Mobilit

Risk assessment for the 2025 In-Service Verification (ISV) of CO2 emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles

Article 13 of Regulation (EU) 2019/631 requires the type-approval authorities to verify the CO2 emission and fuel consumption values of light-duty vehicles in-service. Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/2867 sets out the guiding principles and criteria for defining the procedures for that verification, while Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/2866 determines the actual verification procedures. Article 3(4) of that Implementing Regulation requires the Commission to set out a methodology for assessing the risk that in-service verification (ISV) families may include vehicles with a deviation in the CO2 emission values and to publish each year a report describing that methodology and listing those families with the highest risk of including such vehicles. JRC has been tasked to perform the risk assessment on behalf of the Commission. This is the second annual report describing the methodology for the assessment, and the main findings. The risk assessment methodology described was built upon the approach established in last year’s report, using the concept of the Composite Risk Index (CRI). The CRI combines the probability and severity of a specific occurrence. Probability levels are determined based on the total number of new vehicles from the in-service verification family that have been placed on the Union market. For the severity determination, the data collected pursuant to Article 14 of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/392 and the real-world data, as referred to in Article 3(3)(e) of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/2866 have been used. In addition, tests performed through the Commission’s market surveillance test campaigns and from the in-service conformity tests pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2017/1151 have been part of this year’s risk assessment. This report identifies the ISV families with the highest risk of including vehicles with a deviation in CO2 emissions values. Based on the risk assessment and random selection, 333 unique interpolation families, representing 250 unique ISV families, have been identified as having such high risk. Additionally, some interpolation families were reported as part of the annual CO2 monitoring for light-duty vehicles, but could not be found amongst those reported to the Commission under Article 14 of Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/392. As a result, a number (24) of those missing interpolation families with the highest vehicle registration numbers in the last three years and manufacturers with the highest percentage of missing families, has been selected and included in the list of high risk families for the 2025 in-service verification. In addition, and to fill the gap between the 2025 ISV testing needs and to cover all manufacturers, the final list of families includes also 13 interpolation families selected based on medium risk or the highest registration volumes. In total, the ISV 2025 testing plan comprises 370 unique interpolation families. To further support the vehicle selection for the 2025 in-service verification, this report also links potential risks associated with ISV families flagged as high risk to chassis-dynamometer testing, road load tests, or the implementation of artificial strategies. Consequently, each of the listed ISV families was marked for specific types of tests based on the outcomes of this risk assessment.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable, Smart and Safe Mobilit

Cerebral perfusion pressure, microdialysis biochemistry and clinical outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury

Abstract Background Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability. It has been postulated that brain metabolic status, intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) are related to patients' outcome. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between CPP, ICP and microdialysis parameters and clinical outcome in TBIs. Results Thirty four individuals with severe brain injury hospitalized in an intensive care unit participated in this study. Microdialysis data were collected, along with ICP and CPP values. Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) was used to evaluate patient outcome at 6 months after injury. Fifteen patients with a CPP greater than 75 mmHg, L/P ratio lower than 37 and Glycerol concentration lower than 72 mmol/l had an excellent outcome (GOS 4 or 5), as opposed to the remaining 19 patients. No patient with a favorable outcome had a CPP lower than 75 mmHg or Glycerol concentration and L/P ratio greater than 72 mmol/l and 37 respectively. Data regarding L/P ratio and Glycerol concentration were statistically significant at p = 0.05 when patients with favorable and unfavorable outcome were compared. In a logistic regression model adjusted for age, sex and Glasgow Coma Scale on admission, a CPP greater than 75 mmHg was marginally statistically significantly related to outcome at 6 months after injury. Conclusions Patients with favorable outcome had certain common features in terms of microdialysis parameters and CPP values. An individualized approach regarding CPP levels and cut -off points for Glycerol concentration and L/P ratio are proposed. </jats:sec

In Use Determination of Aerodynamic and Rolling Resistances of Heavy-Duty Vehicles

A vehicle&rsquo;s air drag coefficient (Cd) and rolling resistance coefficient (RRC) have a significant impact on its fuel consumption. Consequently, these properties are required as input for the certification of the vehicle&rsquo;s fuel consumption and Carbon Dioxide emissions, regardless of whether the certification is done via simulation or chassis dyno testing. They can be determined through dedicated measurements, such as a drum test for the tire&rsquo;s rolling resistance coefficient and constant speed test (EU) or coast down test (US) for the body&rsquo;s air Cd. In this paper, a methodology that allows determining the vehicle&rsquo;s Cd&middot;A (the product of Cd and frontal area of the vehicle) from on-road tests is presented. The possibility to measure these properties during an on-road test, without the need for a test track, enables third parties to verify the certified vehicle properties in order to preselect vehicle for further regulatory testing. On-road tests were performed with three heavy-duty vehicles, two lorries, and a coach, over different routes. Vehicles were instrumented with wheel torque sensors, wheel speed sensors, a GPS device, and a fuel flow sensor. Cd&middot;A of each vehicle is determined from the test data with the proposed methodology and validated against their certified value. The methodology presents satisfactory repeatability with the error ranging from &minus;21 to 5% and averaging approximately &minus;6.8%. A sensitivity analysis demonstrates the possibility of using the tire energy efficiency label instead of the measured RRC to determine the air drag coefficient. Finally, on-road tests were simulated in the Vehicle Energy Consumption Calculation Tool with the obtained parameters, and the average difference in fuel consumption was found to be 2%

Νέες μέθοδοι για την συγκριτική αξιολόγηση της κατανάλωσης ενέργειας και εκπομπών CO2 από οχήματα οδικής κυκλοφορίας

The European Union (EU) has set carbon dioxide (CO2) emission performance standards for new light-duty vehicles, a category that includes passenger cars and vans, for more than ten years. To achieve the scope of the CO2 standards, the regulation mandates the benchmarking of energy and fuel consumption, and CO2 emissions of the individual vehicle models entering the European market, and the fleet-level benchmarking versus targets set by the standards. The effectiveness of CO2 policies in reducing carbon dependency of road transport is based on (1) vehicle technology improvements, (2) the actual vehicle usage on the fleet level, and (3) the capacity of policy measures to progressively transform the powertrain composition of the fleet. The present thesis develops and demonstrates methods for benchmarking the effectiveness of the CO2 policy over these three components. Since the EU CO2 regulation has acknowledged the importance of understanding the causes of the real-world gap and variability from the certification protocols, the real-world factor plays an important role in the present thesis. The thesis initially investigates the benchmarking at the individual vehicle level and proposes methods for assessing vehicle efficiency under on-road conditions. Vehicle resistances admittedly play an important role in the vehicle energy consumption. The regulatory methods, although they show good accuracy, are costly, and the resulting resistances, since derived in proving grounds, might not reflect real-world on-road conditions. A novel methodology was implemented to measure the resistances during on-road testing using wheel torque meters to deal with this issue. Energy and fuel consumption was simulated with both the measured and official resistance coefficients as secondary validation, and as a full framework for vehicle technology benchmarking. Then, the focus is given to vehicle usage benchmarking, where a simulation framework is proposed to assess the average fleet efficiency under different use and environmental conditions. A detailed vehicle simulation tool, suitable for performing detailed fleet simulations, was combined with real-world data and knowledge to build a real-world simulation framework. The goal was to analyse the average CO2 emissions and electric energy consumption in the EU, and how factors influence the difference from the vehicles' certified consumption values. Finally, the thesis benchmarks how policy affects fleet composition evolution. Using knowledge of vehicle fleet modelling obtained earlier, an attempt to analyse CO2 policies' influence on passenger cars was performed. To obtain a robust counterfactual result, two regions are compared as a case study: the EU, where CO2 emissions have been regulated for over fifteen years, and Australia, which recently introduced such a policy element. After benchmarking a modern fleet composition of newly registered vehicles for the two regions, the share of zero-emission vehicles required to meet the targets set in both regions is calculated. Overall, the thesis outcomes provide scientific support, evidence, and insights for understanding the influence of current implementing regulation elements and regulations that will appear in the following years.Η Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση (ΕΕ) έχει καθιερώσει πρότυπα επιδόσεων εκπομπών διοξειδίου του άνθρακα (CO2) για νέα ελαφρά οχήματα για περισσότερα από δέκα χρόνια. Για την επίτευξη των στόχων CO2, ο κανονισμός επιβάλλει τη συγκριτική αξιολόγηση της κατανάλωσης ενέργειας και καυσίμου, καθώς και των εκπομπών CO2 των οχημάτων που εισέρχονται στην ευρωπαϊκή αγορά, καθώς και τη σύγκριση σε επίπεδο στόλου έναντι των στόχων που καθορίζονται από τα πρότυπα. Η αποτελεσματικότητα των πολιτικών για το CO2 βασίζεται: (1) στη βελτίωση της τεχνολογίας των οχημάτων, (2) στην πραγματική χρήση των οχημάτων σε επίπεδο στόλου και (3) στην ικανότητα των μέτρων να μετασχηματίζουν σταδιακά τη σύνθεση του στόλου. Η παρούσα διατριβή αναπτύσσει και επιδεικνύει μεθόδους για τη συγκριτική αξιολόγηση της αποτελεσματικότητας της πολιτικής για το CO2 σε αυτές τις τρεις συνιστώσες. Δεδομένου ότι o κανονισμός της ΕΕ αναγνωρίζει τη σημασία της κατανόησης των αιτιών της απόκλισης και της μεταβλητότητας του πραγματικού κόσμου από τα πρωτόκολλα πιστοποίησης, ο παράγοντας των πραγματικών συνθηκών διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην παρούσα διατριβή. Η διατριβή αρχικά διερευνά τη σύγκριση σε επίπεδο μεμονωμένου οχήματος και προτείνει μεθόδους για την αξιολόγηση της απόδοσης του υπό πραγματικές συνθήκες οδήγησης. Οι αντιστάσεις του οχήματος αποτελούν σημαντικό μέρος της κατανάλωσης ενέργειας. Οι μέθοδοι που περιγράφονται στους κανονισμούς, αν και δείχνουν καλή ακρίβεια, είναι δαπανηρές και οι προκύπτουσες αντιστάσεις, προερχόμενες από περιοχές δοκιμών, ενδέχεται να μην αντικατοπτρίζουν τις συνθήκες οδήγησης στο δρόμο. Για την αντιμετώπιση αυτού του ζητήματος, εφαρμόστηκε μια νέα μεθοδολογία για τη μέτρηση των αντιστάσεων κατά τη διάρκεια δοκιμών στο δρόμο με τη χρήση μετρητών ροπής τροχών. Η κατανάλωση ενέργειας και καυσίμου προσομοιώθηκε με τους μετρημένους και τους επίσημους συντελεστές αντίστασης ως δευτερεύουσα επικύρωση, αλλά και ως μία πρόταση πλαισίου για τη αξιολόγηση της τεχνολογίας των οχημάτων. Στη συνέχεια, δίνεται έμφαση στη συγκριτική αξιολόγηση της χρήσης των οχημάτων, προτείνοντας ένα πλαίσιο προσομοίωσης για την αξιολόγηση της μέσης απόδοσης σε επίπεδο στόλου υπό διαφορετικές συνθήκες χρήσης και περιβάλλοντος. Ένα λεπτομερές εργαλείο προσομοίωσης οχημάτων, κατάλληλο για την εκτέλεση λεπτομερών προσομοιώσεων στόλου συνδυάστηκε με δεδομένα και γνώση από πραγματικές συνθήκες για τη δημιουργία ενός πλαισίου προσομοίωσης πραγματικού κόσμου. Στόχος ήταν να αναλυθούν οι μέσες εκπομπές CO2 και η κατανάλωση ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στην ΕΕ και πώς οι παράγοντες επηρεάζουν τη διαφορά από τις πιστοποιημένες τιμές κατανάλωσης των οχημάτων. Τέλος, η διατριβή αξιολογεί την αποτελεσματικότητα της πολιτικής CO2 προς την αλλαγή της σύνθεσης του στόλου οχημάτων. Χρησιμοποιώντας τη γνώση που αποκτήθηκε για τη μοντελοποίηση του στόλου οχημάτων, γίνεται μια προσπάθεια ανάλυσης της επιρροής των πολιτικών CO2 για τα επιβατικά αυτοκίνητα. Για να προκύψει ένα αξιόπιστο αποτέλεσμα, συγκρίθηκαν δύο περιοχές: η ΕΕ, όπου οι εκπομπές CO2 ρυθμίζονται για πάνω από δεκαπέντε χρόνια, και η Αυστραλία, η οποία εισήγαγε πρόσφατα παρόμοια μέτρα. Μετά τη σύγκριση μιας μοντέρνας σύνθεσης στόλου των νεοεισαχθέντων οχημάτων, υπολογίζεται το ποσοστό των οχημάτων μηδενικών εκπομπών που απαιτείται για την επίτευξη των στόχων που έχουν τεθεί στις δύο περιοχές. Συνολικά, τα αποτελέσματα της διατριβής παρέχουν επιστημονική υποστήριξη, στοιχεία και ιδέες για την κατανόηση της επιρροής των τρεχόντων εκτελεστικών κανονισμών, καθώς και των κανονισμών που θα εμφανιστούν τα επόμενα χρόνια

Impacts of Extreme Ambient Temperatures and Road Gradient on Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions of a Euro 6d-Temp Gasoline Vehicle

The EU aims to substantially reduce its greenhouse gas emissions in the following decades and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Better CO2 estimates, particularly in urban conditions, are necessary for assessing the effectiveness of various regional policy strategies. In this study, we measured the CO2 emissions of a Euro 6d-temp gasoline direct injection (GDI) vehicle with a three-way catalyst (TWC) and a gasoline particulate filter (GPF) at ambient temperatures from −30 °C up to 50 °C with the air-conditioning on. The tests took place both on the road and in the laboratory, over cycles simulating congested urban traffic, dynamic driving, and uphill driving towing a trailer at 85% of the maximum payloads of both the car and the trailer. The CO2 values varied over a wide range depending on the temperature and driving conditions. Vehicle simulation was used to quantify the effect of ambient temperature, vehicle weight and road grade on the CO2 emissions. The results showed that vehicle energy demand was significantly increased under the test conditions. In urban trips, compared to the baseline at 23 °C, the CO2 emissions were 9–20% higher at −10 °C, 30–44% higher at −30 °C, and 37–43% higher at 50 °C. Uphill driving with a trailer had 2–3 times higher CO2 emissions. In motorway trips at 50 °C, CO2 emissions increased by 13–19%. The results of this study can help in better quantification of CO2 and fuel consumption under extreme conditions. Additional analysis on the occurrence of such conditions in real-world operation is advisable

Impacts of extreme ambient temperatures and road gradient on energy consumption and CO2 emissions of a Euro 6d-temp gasoline vehicle

The EU aims to substantially reduce its greenhouse gas emissions in the following decades and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Better CO2 estimates, particularly in urban conditions, are necessary for assessing the effectiveness of various regional policy strategies. In this study, we measured the CO2 emissions of a Euro 6d-temp gasoline direct injection (GDI) vehicle with a three-way catalyst (TWC) and a gasoline particulate filter (GPF) at ambient temperatures from −30 °C up to 50 °C with the air-conditioning on. The tests took place both on the road and in the laboratory, over cycles simulating congested urban traffic, dynamic driving, and uphill driving towing a trailer at 85% of the maximum payloads of both the car and the trailer. The CO2 values varied over a wide range depending on the temperature and driving conditions. Vehicle simulation was used to quantify the effect of ambient temperature, vehicle weight and road grade on the CO2 emissions. The results showed that vehicle energy demand was significantly increased under the test conditions. In urban trips, compared to the baseline at 23 °C, the CO2 emissions were 9–20% higher at −10 °C, 30–44% higher at −30 °C, and 37–43% higher at 50 °C. Uphill driving with a trailer had 2–3 times higher CO2 emissions. In motorway trips at 50 °C, CO2 emissions increased by 13–19%. The results of this study can help in better quantification of CO2 and fuel consumption under extreme conditions. Additional analysis on the occurrence of such conditions in real-world operation is advisable.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable Transpor