Der Kampf ums Schmerzensgeld im Vorfeld des BGB von 1900 am Beispiel zweier Reichsgerichtsurteile aus 1882

Bei der Untersuchung der "deutschen" Rezeption des Code Civil fällt eine Reichsgerichtsentscheidung des II. Zivilsenats aus dem Jahre 1882 ins Auge, die viel Kritik erfahren hat, da sie sich scheinbar willkürlich in Gegensatz zur ständigen französischen Rechtsprechung zum Schmer¬zensgeld setzte, indem sie den Ersatz eines dommage moral als dem Willen des Code Civil nicht entsprechend ablehnte. Eine Entscheidung des III. Zivilsenats des Reichsgerichts, die nur wenige Monate später ergangen war, sprach hingegen Schmerzensgeld – wiederum aus grundsätzlichen Erwägungen heraus – zu. Mit Blick darauf, dass zum Zeitpunkt des Erlasses der beiden erwähnten Entscheidungen 1882 bereits die erste BGB-Kommission eingesetzt war, stellt sich die Frage, wie das Reichsgericht, das nach der Reichsgründung 1871 im Jahre 1879 vor allem zu dem Zweck gegründet worden war, der bestehenden Rechtszersplitterung entgegenzuwirken, die Grundsatzfrage nach der generellen Gewährung von Schmerzensgeld genau entgegengesetzt beantworten konnte. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, im Wege einer rechtshistorischen Einordnung der Urteile, den Ursachen hierfür auf den Grund zu gehen. Im Einzelnen wird untersucht, ob schon die unterschiedlichen Sachverhalte, die den beiden Entscheidungen zu Grunde lagen, unweigerlich zu unterschiedlichen Entscheidungen führen mussten. Oder lag Ursache vielleicht darin, dass die Senate aufgrund der Rechtszersplitterung in Deutschland unterschiedliche Rechtsgrundlagen heranziehen mussten, die zudem aus unterschiedlichen Rechtstraditionen stammten? Zuletzt wird erörtert, ob die beiden Urteile nicht in erster Linie Ausdruck des Konfliktes zweier rechtspolitischer Grundhaltungen waren, die nach Umsetzung im entstehenden BGB strebten. Ein Überblick über die Entwicklung des Schmerzensgeldes seit Inkrafttreten des BGB rundet die Betrachtungen ab

Distribution of a brain-specific extracellular matrix protein in developing and adult zebrafish

A monoclonal antibody (IgG) that recognizes a 53-kDa zebrafishnext brain protein was isolated and used to characterize the distribution of this protein in zebrafish.next (1) The antigen was found only in the brain and not in any other tissues such as muscle, dermis and cartilage. Within the brain, the antibody recognized extracellular matrix (ECM) outside neuronal cells. (2) Digestion by hyaluronidase released the antigen from brain tissue, and the monoclonal antibody staining was also decreased by the digestion by hyaluronidase. (3) The pattern of antigen distribution is not perineuronal, as the density of the antigen at the periphery of the cells was practically identical to that of the empty intercellular spaces. Therefore, this monoclonal antibody does not recognize the perineuronal glycocortex. (4) The antigen is distributed only in limited areas of the brain, namely in the periphery of the forebrain, the hypothalamus, the optic tectum, the interpeduncular nucleus, the cerebellum and the ventricular rim of the medulla. In the optic tectum, the antibody strongly stained the most superficial layer, and in the cerebellum, it stained the molecular but not the granular layer. These patterns of distribution are very different from those of other typical brain ECM proteins and suggest that this protein may play quite distinct roles in brain development and maintenance.</p

Zum Einfluss von Implantatzahl, Implantatposition und Attachment- System auf das biomechanische Verhalten von Totalprothesen im Unterkiefer

Einleitung: Zur prothetischen Versorgung des zahnlosen Kiefers stehen verschiedene Behandlungskonzepte zur Verfügung. Mit einer Totalprothese lassen sich durchaus zufriedenstellende Ergebnisse erzielen, wenn der Alveolarfortsatz noch eine gewisse Kontur aufweist. Bei starker Atrophie ist jedoch eine stabile Lage der Unterkieferprothese schwer zu erzielen. Nach Erstbeschreibung der Osseointegration und Einführung zahnärztlicher Implantate wurde in den 1970er Jahren auch damit begonnen, diese zur Stabilisierung von Totalprothesen zu verwenden. Sie werden in den interforaminalen Bereich des Unterkiefers gesetzt und mithilfe von Verbindungselementen (Attachments) mit der Prothese verbunden. Hierfür verwendet man den Locator, den Kugelanker und die verschiedenen Teleskoparten. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung war es, die Auswirkungen von Implantatzahl, Implantatposition und Attachmentsystem auf die biomechanische Belastungssituation zu analysieren. Material und Methode: Als Basis für die Untersuchung diente ein Unterkiefer-Modell mit drei interforaminalen Implantaten und seitlich oder mesial und distal positionierten Dehnungsmessstreifen (DMS). Im Bereich des posterioren Prothesenlagers erfolgte die Aufzeichnung der Belastung mittels Extensometer. Passend zu den Modellsituationen mit den verschiedenen Implantatanordnungen wurden vier Prothesen angefertigt, in welche man die Attachmentsysteme Locator, Kugelanker, Zylinderteleskop und Resilienzteleskop einarbeitete. Bei den nachfolgenden Messungen wurden folgende Implantatanordnungen untersucht: 1) mittleres Implantat, 2) Implantat in regio 33 und 3) beide Implantate in regio 33 und 43. Die Implantate wurden dabei mit den vier verschiedenen Attachments versehen und in Funktion gebracht. Die Belastung erfolgte mit einer einwirkenden Kraft von 100 Newton a) beidseits im Kauzentrum, b) in regio 33, c) in regio 43 und d) im Bereich der mittleren unteren Schneidezähne. Ergebnisse: Bei Modellsituation 1) mit einem interforaminal mittig platziertem Implantat ergaben sich bei Belastung zentral im Kauzentrum für den Locator DMS-Werte von 10 µm/m und 110 µm/m. Die periimplantären Werte der Kugel-Attachments waren signifikant niedriger als beim Zylinder- oder Resilienzteleskop (p=0,00). Wurde das interforaminal singuläre Implantat an regio 33 belastet, so lieferte der rechtsseitige DMS für das Zylinderteleskop Werte um 345 µm/m und für den Locator 180 µm/m. Bei der gegenüberliegenden Belastung in regio 43 ergab das Zylinderteleskop linksseitig den höchsten Werte mit 290 µm/m und rechts 160 µm/m. Hier führte die Nutzung der Zylinderteleskope zu signifikant höheren Werten als bei den Locatoren (p=0,001). Bei Belastung im Bereich der Unterkiefer-Incisivi führte das Resilienzteleskop mit 290 µm/m am rechten DMS zum höchsten Wert. Bei Modellsituation 2) mit Verwendung eines Implantates regio 33 ergaben sich bei Belastung in der Mitte des Kauzentrums die höchsten Werte für das Resilienzteleskop mit 160 µm/m am mesialen DMS. Distal erzielten alle Attachments weit höhere Dehnungswerte mit bis zu 740 µm/m beim Locator. Wurde in regio 33 belastet, waren die Werte des Resilienzteleskopes am distalen DMS mit 540 µm/m die höchsten. Belastungen in regio 43 führten am mesialen DMS zu hohen Werten, die für das Zylinderteleskop 1130 µm/m aufwiesen und für den Locator 490 µm/m. Inzisale Belastungen mittig im Unterkiefer ergaben mesiale DMS-Werte zwischen 1140 µm/m für das Zylinderteleskop und 440 µm/m für den Locator. Bei Modellsituation 3) und Verwendung von zwei Implantaten in regio 33 und 43 führte die zentrale Molarenbelastung beim Locator zu den höchsten Werten mit 750 µm/m distal am linken Implantat; mesial lag der Wert etwas unter 200 µm/m. Der Kugelanker erzielte links am distalen DMS Werte um 420 µm/m. Bei Belastung in regio 33 waren die gemessenen Belastungen für die Locatoren und Zylinderteleskope signifikant niedriger als bei den Resilienzteleskopen. Belastung in regio 43 führte bei der Nutzung der Resilienzteleskope zu signifikant höheren periimplantären Werten im Vergleich zu den Locatoren (p=0,011) und den Zylinderteleskopen (p=0,019). Bei Belastung an den Inzisiven führten die Resilienzteleskope im Vergleich zu den Locatoren zu signifikant höherer periimplantärer Belastung (p=0,015). Diskussion: Bei der Modellsituation mit zwei Implantaten wies das Einsinken der Prothesen geringe konstante Werte auf. Diese Versorgungsform wird in der Literatur auch aufgrund der hinreichend bekannten Prothesenkinematik als Standardversorgung betrachtet. Die Verwendung zweier Implantate weist keinen signifikanten Unterschied zur Verwendung eines singulären Implantates auf. Jedoch führen die unterschiedlichen Belastungspositionen bei letzterem zu inkonstanteren Werten, was zeigt, dass die Krafteinwirkung eine höhere Relevanz für die Prothesenkinematik zu haben scheint. Bei Insertion eines singulären Implantates in der Eckzahnregion ergaben die Untersuchungen inhomogene Werte, was mit den dabei entstehenden ungünstigeren Hebelarmen zusammenhängen dürfte. Ein ideales Attachmentsystem sollte die Prothese ausreichend stabilisieren sowie periimplantäre Belastungsspitzen vermeiden. Dabei führt eine starre Abstützung der Prothese zu geringerer Knochenresorption im Bereich des Kauzentrums, erhöht aber die auftretenden Spannungen am Implantat. Eine bewegliche Abstützung hingegen reduziert die Implantatbelastung, verstärkt allerdings die am Lager auftretende Kraft. Im Einzelnen konnte gezeigt werden, dass jedes Attachmentsystem Belastungsspitzen an die Dehnungsmessstreifen weiterleitete, was insbesondere für die Verwendung von Teleskopkronen galt, die eine deutliche Dispersität der Messwerte aufwiesen. Kugelanker und Locatoren besitzen im Vergleich dazu mehr Freiheitsgrade, was zu einer geringeren Knochenbelastung führt. Belastungen in der Molarenregion führten bei jeder Modellsituation und bei jedem Attachmentsystem zu einem stärkeren Einsinken der Prothese im Bereich des Kauzentrums als anteriore Belastungen an den Inzisiven. Die Belastung im Bereich der Inzisiven hingegen rief höhere Implantatbelastungen hervor. Die vorliegende Untersuchung lässt die Schlussfolgerung zu, dass die Versorgung mit einem oder zwei interforaminalen Implantaten zielführend sein kann. Wenn die Gegebenheiten aber nur ein Implantat zulassen, sollte dieses interforaminal mittig positioniert werden.Introduction: Various treatment concepts are available for the prosthetic restoration of the edentulous jaw. With a complete denture, satisfactory results can be achieved if the alveolar process still has a certain contour. In cases of severe atrophy, however, a secure mandibular prosthesis stabilization is difficult to achieve. After the initial specification of osseointegration and the introduction of dental implants, in the 1970s implants also were used to stabilize complete dentures. They are placed in the interforaminal area of the mandible and connected to the denture using prosthetic attachments. Locator, ball anchor and types of telescopes are used for this purpose. The aim of the present study was to analyze the effects of implant number, implant position and attachment system on the biomechanical loading situation. Material and method: The study was based on a mandibular model with three interforaminal implants and strain gauges positioned laterally or mesially and distally of the implants. In the area of the posterior denture bearing area, the prosthesis displacement caused by the load was recorded using extensometers. Four prostheses were fabricated to match the implant arrangements (model situations), into which the Locator, ball anchor, cylindrical telescope and resilience telescope attachment systems were incorporated. The following implant arrangements were examined in the subsequent measurements: 1) central interforaminal implant, 2) implant in region 33 and 3) implants in regions 33 and 43. The implants were fitted with the four different attachments and put into function. The load was applied using a force of 100 N a) on both sides in the masticatory center, b) in region 33, c) in region 43 and d) in the region of the central mandibular incisors. Results: In model situation 1) with an interforaminal centrally placed implant, loading in the masticatory center resulted in values of 10 μm/m and 110 μm/m for the locator strain gauges. The peri-implant values of the ball anchor were significantly lower than for the cylindrical or resilience telescopes (p=0.00). When the interforaminal singular implant was loaded at regio 33, the right-sided strain gauge provided values around 345 μm/m for the cylindrical telescope and 180 μm/m for the locator. For the opposite loading at regio 43, the cylindrical telescope gave the highest values of 290 μm/m on the left side and 160 μm/m on the right side. Here, the use of the cylindrical telescopes resulted in significantly higher values than for the locators (p=0.001). When loading in the region of the mandibular incisors, the resilience telescope resulted in the highest value of 290 μm/m on the right strain gauge. In model situation 2) with the use of an implant regio 33, the highest values for the resilience telescope with 160 μm/m at the mesial strain gauge were obtained with loading in the middle of the masticatory center. Distally, all attachments achieved much higher strain values with up to 740 μm/m at the locator. When loading was applied in region 33, the values of the resilience telescope at the distal strain gage were the highest at 540 μm/m. Loads in regio 43 resulted in high values at the mesial strain gauge, which showed 1130 μm/m for the cylindrical telescope and 490 μm/m for the locator. Incisal loads centered in the mandible resulted in mesial strain gauge values between 1140 μm/m for the cylindrical telescope and 440 μm/m for the locator. In model situation 3) and using two implants in region 33 and 43, the central molar load on the locator resulted in the highest values of 750 μm/m distally on the left implant; mesially, the value was slightly less than 200 μm/m. The ball anchor achieved values around 420 μm/m on the left distal strain gauge. With loading in region 33, the measured loads for the locators and cylindrical telescopes were significantly lower than for the resilience telescopes. Loading at regio 43 resulted in significantly higher peri-implant values when using the resilience telescopes compared to the locators (p=0.011) and cylindrical telescopes (p=0.019). When loaded at the incisors, the resilience telescopes resulted in significantly higher peri-implant loading compared to the locators (p=0.015). Discussion: In the model situation with two implants, prosthesis displacement in the bearing area exhibited low constant values. In the literature, this type of restoration is considered standard, also due to the sufficiently known prosthesis kinematics. The use of two implants does not show any significant difference compared to the use of a single implant. However, the different loading positions lead to more inconstant values for the latter, which shows that the force application seems to have a higher relevance for the prosthesis kinematics. When a singular implant was placed in the canine region, the investigations showed inhomogeneous values, which is probably related to the more unfavorable lever arms that result. An ideal attachment system should sufficiently stabilize the prosthesis and avoid peri-implant stress peaks. Rigid support of the prosthesis leads to less bone resorption in the area of the masticatory center but increases the stresses occurring at the implant. A flexible support, on the other hand, reduces the implant load, but increases the force occurring at the prosthesis bearing area. Specifically, it was shown that each attachment system transmitted stress peaks to the strain gauges, which was particularly true for the use of telescopic crowns, which exhibited significant dispersity of the measured values. Ball anchors and locators, in comparison, have more degrees of freedom, resulting in lower bone loading. Loading in the molar region resulted in greater denture displacement in the masticatory area than anterior loading at the incisors in every model situation and with each attachment system. In contrast, loading in the incisor region evoked higher implant stresses. The present study allows the conclusion that the restoration with one or two interforaminal implants can be target-oriented. However, if the conditions permit only one implant, it should be positioned centrally in the interforaminal area

Lesion-Induced Alterations in Astrocyte Glutamate Transporter Expression and Function in the Hippocampus

Astrocytes express the sodium-dependent glutamate transporters GLAST and GLT-1, which are critical to maintain low extracellular glutamate concentrations. Here, we analyzed changes in their expression and function following a mechanical lesion in the CA1 area of organotypic hippocampal slices. 6-7 days after lesion, a glial scar had formed along the injury site, containing strongly activated astrocytes with increased GFAP and S100β immunoreactivity, enlarged somata, and reduced capability for uptake of SR101. Astrocytes in the scar’s periphery were swollen as well, but showed only moderate upregulation of GFAP and S100β and efficiently took up SR101. In the scar, clusters of GLT-1 and GLAST immunoreactivity colocalized with GFAP-positive fibers. Apart from these, GLT-1 immunoreactivity declined with increasing distance from the scar, whereas GLAST expression appeared largely uniform. Sodium imaging in reactive astrocytes indicated that glutamate uptake was strongly reduced in the scar but maintained in the periphery. Our results thus show that moderately reactive astrocytes in the lesion periphery maintain overall glutamate transporter expression and function. Strongly reactive astrocytes in the scar, however, display clusters of GLAST and GLT-1 immunoreactivity together with reduced glutamate transport activity. This reduction might contribute to increased extracellular glutamate concentrations and promote excitotoxic cell damage at the lesion site.</jats:p

Sensory and cortical activation of distinct glial cell subtypes in the somatosensory thalamus of young rats

The rodent ventrobasal (VB) thalamus receives sensory inputs from the whiskers and projects to the cortex, from which it receives reciprocal excitatory afferents. Much is known about the properties and functional roles of these glutamatergic inputs to thalamocortical neurons in the VB, but no data are available on how these afferents can affect thalamic glial cells. In this study, we used combined electrophysiological recordings and intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) imaging to investigate glial cell responses to synaptic afferent stimulation. VB thalamus glial cells can be divided into two groups based on their [Ca2+]i and electrophysiological responses to sensory and corticothalamic stimulation. One group consists of astrocytes, which stain positively for S100B and preferentially load with SR101, have linear current–voltage relations and low input resistance, show no voltage-dependent [Ca2+]i responses, but express mGluR5-dependent [Ca2+]i transients following stimulation of the sensory and/or corticothalamic excitatory afferent pathways. Cells of the other glial group, by contrast, stain positively for NG2, and are characterized by high input resistance, the presence of voltage-dependent [Ca2+]i elevations and voltage-gated inward currents. There were no synaptically induced [Ca2+]i elevations in these cells under control conditions. These results show that thalamic glial cell responses to synaptic input exhibit different properties to those of thalamocortical neurons. As VB astrocytes can respond to synaptic stimulation and signal to neighbouring neurons, this glial cell organization may have functional implications for the processing of somatosensory information and modulation of behavioural state-dependent thalamocortical network activities

An astrocyte-dependent mechanism for neuronal rhythmogenesis

Communication between neurons rests on their capacity to change their firing pattern to encode different messages. For several vital functions, such as respiration and mastication, neurons need to generate a rhythmic firing pattern. Here we show in the rat trigeminal sensori-motor circuit for mastication that this ability depends on regulation of the extracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]e) by astrocytes. In this circuit, astrocytes respond to sensory stimuli that induce neuronal rhythmic activity, and their blockade with a Ca2+ chelator prevents neurons from generating a rhythmic bursting pattern. This ability is restored by adding S100b, an astrocytic Ca2+-binding protein, to the extracellular space, while application of an anti-S100b antibody prevents generation of rhythmic activity. These results indicate that astrocytes regulate a fundamental neuronal property: the capacity to change firing pattern. These findings may have broad implications for many other neural networks whose functions depend on the generation of rhythmic activity

Bioprocessing strategies to enhance the challenging isolation of neuro-regenerative cells from olfactory mucosa

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are a promising potential cell therapy to aid regeneration. However, there are significant challenges in isolating and characterizing them. In the current study, we have explored methods to enhance the recovery of cells expressing OEC marker p75NTR from rat mucosa. With the addition of a 24-hour differential adhesion step, the expression of p75NTR was significantly increased to 73 ± 5% and 46 ± 18% on PDL and laminin matrices respectively. Additionally, the introduction of neurotrophic factor NT-3 and the decrease in serum concentration to 2% FBS resulted in enrichment of OECs, with p75NTR at nearly 100% (100 ± 0% and 98 ± 2% on PDL and laminin respectively), and candidate fibroblast marker Thy1.1 decreased to zero. Culturing OECs at physiologically relevant oxygen tension (2–8%) had a negative impact on p75NTR expression and overall cell survival. Regarding cell potency, co-culture of OECs with NG108-15 neurons resulted in more neuronal growth and potential migration at atmospheric oxygen. Moreover, OECs behaved similarly to a Schwann cell line positive control. In conclusion, this work identified key bioprocessing fundamentals that will underpin future development of OEC-based cell therapies for potential use in spinal cord injury repair. However, there is still much work to do to create optimized isolation methods

High-Density Expression of Ca2+-Permeable ASIC1a Channels in NG2 Glia of Rat Hippocampus

NG2 cells, a fourth type of glial cell in the mammalian CNS, undergo reactive changes in response to a wide variety of brain insults. Recent studies have demonstrated that neuronally expressed acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are implicated in various neurological disorders including brain ischemia and seizures. Acidosis is a common feature of acute neurological conditions. It is postulated that a drop in pH may be the link between the pathological process and activation of NG2 cells. Such postulate immediately prompts the following questions: Do NG2 cells express ASICs? If so, what are their functional properties and subunit composition? Here, using a combination of electrophysiology, Ca2+ imaging and immunocytochemistry, we present evidence to demonstrate that NG2 cells of the rat hippocampus express high density of Ca2+-permeable ASIC1a channels compared with several types of hippocampal neurons. First, nucleated patch recordings from NG2 cells revealed high density of proton-activated currents. The magnitude of proton-activated current was pH dependent, with a pH for half-maximal activation of 6.3. Second, the current-voltage relationship showed a reversal close to the equilibrium potential for Na+. Third, psalmotoxin 1, a blocker specific for the ASIC1a channel, largely inhibited proton-activated currents. Fourth, Ca2+ imaging showed that activation of proton-activated channels led to an increase of [Ca2+]i. Finally, immunocytochemistry showed co-localization of ASIC1a and NG2 proteins in the hippocampus. Thus the acid chemosensor, the ASIC1a channel, may serve for inducing membrane depolarization and Ca2+ influx, thereby playing a crucial role in the NG2 cell response to injury following ischemia