The northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) as a vector for inoculation of red spruce (Picea rubens) seedlings with ectomycorrhizal fungi

Mycophagous mammals excavate and ingest fruiting bodies (ascomata) of hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungi and produce faeces containing numerous spores. To evaluate the significance of mycophagy to plant hosts we compared inoculation rate and degree of fungal development on red spruce (Picea rubens) seedlings treated with (1) faeces of the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) against seedlings treated with (2) ascospores of Elaphomyces granulatus, and (3) those grown in natural forest soil or (4) forest soil that had been rendered sterile. No seedlings grown in sterilised soil showed fungal colonization. Significantly more seedlings were colonized in natural forest soil (97.5 %) than in sterile soil treated with squirrel faeces (69.2 %) or fruiting body spores (27.5 %). Treatment with squirrel faeces produced significantly more colonization than treatment with fruiting body spores. Fungal development was significantly greater on seedlings grown in forest soil compared with other treatments, but did not differ significantly between squirrel faeces and fruiting body treatments. These results demonstrate that passage through the digestive tract of flying squirrels may enhance germination and inoculation potential of fruiting body spores, although actively growing mycelium in forest soil may be the primary and most effective means by which seedlings develop mycorrhizae under natural conditions

Habitat Correlates of the Red Panda in the Temperate Forests of Bhutan

Anthropogenic activities and associated global climate change are threatening the biodiversity in the Himalayas against a backdrop of poor knowledge of the region's threatened species. The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a threatened mammal confined to the eastern Himalayas, and because of Bhutan's central location in the distributional range of red pandas, its forests are integral to the long-term viability of wild populations. Detailed habitat requirements of the red panda are largely speculative, and there is virtually no ecological information available on this species in Bhutan. Between 2007 and 2009, we established 615 presence/absence plots in a systematic sampling of resident habitat types within Jigme Dorji and Thrumshingla National Parks, Bhutan, to investigate broad and fine-scale red panda habitat associations. Additional locality records of red pandas were obtained from interviewing 664 park residents. Red pandas were generally confined to cool broadleaf and conifer forests from 2,110–4,389 m above sea level (asl), with the majority of records between 2,400–3,700 m asl on south and east-facing slopes. At a finer scale, multivariate analysis revealed that red pandas were strongly associated with old growth Bhutan Fir (Abies densa) forest dominated by a dense cover of Yushania and Arundanaria bamboo with a high density of fallen logs and tree stumps at ground level; a high density of trees, dead snags, and rhododendron shrubs in the mid-storey; and locations that were close to water. Because Bhutan's temperate forests that encompass prime red panda habitat are also integral to human subsistence and socio-economic development, there exists an inadvertent conflict between the needs of people and red pandas. As such, careful sustainable management of Bhutan's temperate forests is necessary if a balance is to be met between the socioeconomic needs of people and the conservation goals for red pandas

Mapping Conservation Priorities and Assessing Connectivity Pathways for Threatened Mammals Under Future Climate Change in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot of Bhutan

High species diversity and endemism within a vast area of intact and unexplored landscapes, makes the Eastern Himalayas a unique global biodiversity hotspot. The region is home to 255 native terrestrial mammal species including 75 globally threatened species such as the iconic tiger Panthera tigris, snow leopard Panthera uncia and the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis. To complement the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, I assessed the current conservation status of native terrestrial mammal species in the Eastern Himalayas and identified the 50 most threatened species based on conservation status, endemism, range size, and evolutionary distinctiveness. Despite a mismatch between current distribution of protected areas and priority areas to conserve these threatened mammals, my findings on the extent of ecoregion protection suggests adequate remaining natural habitats to expand current Eastern Himalayan protected areas. Between 2014 and 2015, I deployed 1858 camera traps within 1129 5-km x 5-km grids over 536 days to investigate richness and diversity of mammals between protected areas, biological corridors, and intervening areas (NPAs) along an elevational gradient in Bhutan. My study revealed 18 (32%) of 56 identified mammal species were IUCN-listed threatened species. Bhutan's network of protected area and biological corridors harbor a richer mammal community than NPAs. Vegetation zones at upper and lower elevation ranges had high species richness and diversity relative to mid-elevations which had higher human presence. Finally, I assessed the ecological functionality, structural design, and management effectiveness of Bhutan's biological corridor network by integrating detailed climatic, ecological, and biological data with emphasis placed on meta-populations of threatened, wide ranging, and umbrella mammal species. To capture areas known to support high diversity of threatened species and reconcile current land use impact and climate change on biodiversity, the top seven priority areas for expansion within this network were identified. My innovative study fills a gap in existing knowledge on current progress and future prospective toward the novel idea by E.O. Wilson of securing a half earth, to conserve biodiversity, address the species-extinction crisis, and prevent collapse of vital ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation. My work is also an important milestone in addressing knowledge gaps for conservation of threatened mammals in the Eastern Himalayas. Regional collaborative cooperation for effective transboundary research and management is necessary, and regional prioritizing of areas for biodiversity conservation is essential to prevent species extinction

Ecological and Cultural Aspects of the Reintroduction of Mala 'Lagorchestes hirsutus' to Uluṟu

Mala or the rufous hare-wallaby 'Lagorchestes hirsutus' is a small macropod once found across vast areas of arid and semi-arid mainland Australia. Mala became extinct in the southern part of central Australia in the 1950s, and from the mainland entirely in the early 1990s. The removal of a number of animals prior to the disappearance of the last mainland populations permitted the establishment of a captive breeding colony, and the subsequent gradual recovery of the species. As part of long term plans to return a suite of locally extinct species to Uluṟu - Kata Tjuṯa National Park (an internationally recognised World Heritage Area within the former range of mala), traditional owners (Aṉangu) and Parks Australia selected mala as the priority taxa for reintroduction. An inability to control introduced predators prohibited a wild release of mala, and consequently a 170ha predator-proof enclosure was constructed to facilitate the translocation. In 2005, 24 mala sourced from Watarrka National Park were released into this enclosure, providing an opportunity to conduct demographic, behavioural, and dietary studies to determine the most appropriate conservation management protocols for the species. Further, traditional ecological knowledge of mala could be documented, and Aṉangu attitudes towards the return of mala to Uluṟu explored

The Ecology of the Bhutan takin Budorcas whitei in Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan

The Bhutan takin Budorcas whitei, a large gregarious forest-dwelling ungulate, is endemic to Bhutan and categorized as 'vulnerable' by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The word 'takin' is used hereafter to denote both singular and plural. Prior to my work, there had been only one study on this species which investigated its diet within its summer habitat. Prior to beginning my field research on takin, I assessed its current distribution and conservation status in Bhutan from information gathered through publications, field surveys, interviews and unpublished reports. The assessment resulted in documenting some interesting facts such as establishing the Bhutan takin as endemic to Bhutan; the takin's site fidelity to hot spring and salt lick areas, and their distribution along the river valleys which are important landscape features for habitat selection. I identified additional threats to the takin like anthropogenic disturbance and disruption to migration routes, threats posed by domestic livestock including dogs, and the risk of zoonoses disease transmission. I examined takin migratory movement between their winter and summer habitat, and their summer habitat use in the Tsharijathang Valley of Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan, from 2013-2015 using GPS collars. Bhutan takins are seasonal migrants from warm broad-leaved forest to alpine meadow within the altitude range of 1500 m to 5550 m asl (meter above sea level, hereafter using 'm' instead of 'm asl'). GPS-collars were placed on 13 adult takins (7 males and 6 females) to document these seasonal movements. Because of animal welfare concerns, sub-adult animals could not be collared. Takin, on average, travelled about 4 km per 24-hour period, about a third of which occurred at night. There was high site fidelity and overlap of habitat in their summer range that led to short distance travel which ultimately resulted in a smaller summer home range. The Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) home range estimate for takin in the summer habitat at a 95% isopleth ranged between 3.35 - 14.21 km2, while the kernel utilization distribution (KUD) estimate ranged between 7.55 to 27.4 km2. A male takin (TM2724) collared on 8 July 2013 provided partial data on takin migration from its summer range to its winter range before the GPS collar ran out of memory on 27 September 2013. However, this inaugural migration data showed that the animal travelled 26.68 km in the rugged mountainous terrain in three days, and part of which was along a ridgeline between 5007 to 5374 m. The male migrated to the area around Zomling, Lingzhi and Barshong, Naro of Thimphu district. Habitat use by the Bhutan takin in their summer (alpine meadows) and winter (broadleaf forest) habitats was examined by comparing floristic composition in the areas that were used by takin compared to those that were not used. A collective total of 58 plots were laid in the summer habitat (30 plots, 15 each in the used and unused area) and in the winter habitat (28 plots, 14 each in the used and unused area). Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first three principal components explained about 70 percent of the total variance between used and unused sites. PC1 had significant loadings from variables like altitude, herb count and herb mean height, PC2's significant variables were tree count and tree mean DBH while PC3 had significant loadings from shrub mean height. Analysis of variance using distance matrices showed that there were significant differences between the used and unused plots in both habitats (summer F 1, 28 = 69.36, p F 1, 26 = 3.89, p Local knowledge and perceptions by people towards the takin was assessed by conducting facetoface semi-structured interviews on 169 residents of Jigme Dorji National Park from the Laya Geog (takin summer habitat; 91 residents) and Khatey and Khamey Geogs (takin winter habitat; 78 residents). Most respondents knew the takin was the national animal and a significantly higher proportion also knew its protected status. There was a significant difference in knowledge based upon respondents' residence whereby residents in the takin's summer habitat possessed more knowledge on the vulnerable status of takin. The summer habitat has affluent residents that benefit from collection of the prized medicinal Chinese caterpillar fungus or 'Cordyceps' Ophiocordyceps sinensis; this in turn allows them better access to media (e.g. television and radio) that expose them to pertinent information and campaigns surrounding the takin. Most respondents expressed positive feelings towards the takin and supported its protection. This strong positive attitude and awareness by residents is promising but it is strongly recommended that the park develops diverse education programs targeting different age groups and learning capabilities in continuing to maintain local support and stewardship. Conservation of the takin, however, is not without its challenges and requires a commitment to reduce anthropogenic disturbance such as land use change from road construction, infrastructure for power transmission lines, unregulated harvesting of natural resources notably the prized cordyceps, competition for foraging resources from domestic livestock, and most critically, the spread of zoonotic disease transmission from domestic livestock. Understanding habitat use by takin and associated preferred habitat variables amidst various anthropogenic threats is integral towards ameliorating damage to takin habitat and preventing further loss. Furthermore, the Jigme Dorji National Park management should reinforce the implementation of the tripartite Tsharijathang Agreement whereby domestic livestock are not grazed in the Tsharijathang Valley a month prior to the takin's arrival. The valley needs urgent protection as a declared takin sanctuary to provide a safe habitat for takin during their breeding season. This valley attracts different congregating herds from several wintering habitats around Thimphu, Paro, Gasa and Punakha, and it is crucial to facilitate the current genetic exchange to increase population vigor for the long-term survival of the takin, Bhutan's national animal

The Swamp Wallaby 'Wallabia bicolor': a generalist browser as a key mycophagist

Mammal-macrofungal interactions are integral to ecosystem function in landscapes dominated by ectomycorrhizal (EM) plants. EM fungi, critical symbiont's with forest plants, produce sporocarps (fruit bodies) which are an important food resource for a variety of mammals. These mammals in turn play an important dispersal role, particularly for truffle-like (below-ground fruiting or hypogeous basidiomycetes) sporocarpic fungi that do not actively discharge their spores (sequestrate). This thesis examines interactions between truffle-like fungi and a non-specialist, mycophagous marsupial, the swamp wallaby 'Wallabia bicolor'. The availability of truffle-like fungi sporocarps as a food resource for mycophagous (fungus-feeding) mammals, the macrofungal diet of the swamp wallaby, and gut-retention and potential dispersal of macrofungal spores by swamp wallaby are examined

Analysis of the Functionality, Value and Constraints of Using Camera Traps for Wildlife Monitoring and Ecological Research

Adoption of camera trapping as a survey method by wildlife practitioners is increasing at warp speed. The technique is now widely cited in the published scientific literature and it has quickly become an important and widely used method in wildlife research, wildlife monitoring, and citizen science. Camera traps have largely been developed as a tool satisfying the demands of a very large hunting industry in North America. Until recently, the needs of ecologists and wildlife enthusiasts had been second to those in pursuit of hunting trophies, and as such many camera trap models failed the litmus test for fauna surveillance. The magnitude of these limitations has not been adequately recognised by practitioners and has led to the adoption of the technique without full understanding of the constraints of the sampling tool. In this dissertation I aimed to highlight and resolve some of the pitfalls that practitioners face when sampling wildlife using camera traps. I provide a historical context summarising how methods have developed over the last decade and tried to redress some of the ongoing problems identified in the camera trap literature. To this end I provide advice and guidelines to help camera trap practitioners design studies, implement sampling and reporting on their findings. However, the main focus of my research has been to address the differences between camera trap models and brands, the biases of the equipment, the effects of placement and orientation on detection, the challenges of identification and species in photographs, and have instigated the development of computer assisted technologies that will revolutionise how wildlife researchers analyse camera trap image data. I have also used my research to provide constructive design advice to camera trap manufacturers to encourage better designs to suit the needs of wildlife practitioners. Recommendations are provided on what practitioners would consider the features of an ultimate camera trap design that have led to the development of two new models of camera traps, and modifications to existing models

Brushtail possum terrestrial activity patterns are driven by climatic conditions, breeding and moonlight intensity

Ecological studies of common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in their extant range have been limited by technology and the species' nocturnal habit. However, camera traps now allow the investigation of possum ethology without observer interference. Here, we analysed terrestrial possum activity patterns using a large dataset collected over 3 years from 133 camera traps in mesic eucalypt woodland and open forest in three national parks on the New England Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. We investigated how weather and moonlight intensity infuenced possum activity patterns throughout the night, and across seasons and years, by using the timestamps assigned to each detection by the camera trap. Terrestrial possum activity increased as ambient temperatures decreased in autumn and peaked in winter when females were rearing ofspring. Nightly possum detections decreased signifcantly with rain and increasing mean temperature. Possums were almost exclusively nocturnal, with most terrestrial activity earlier in the evening in winter and later at night in summer. During longer nights, higher temperatures also delayed activity. While nightly detection rates were not afected by lunar phase, possums preferred parts of the night with the highest moonlight intensity, and this efect was stronger on brighter nights. Overall, brushtail possums were most active on the ground when temperatures were mild and moonlight bright, presumably assisting foraging and predator avoidance, and during the breeding season" they avoided rain. These patterns suggest that reproduction, thermoregulation and risk of predation strongly shape the nocturnal activity cycle. Furthermore, our research adds to the evidence that camera traps can help greatly expand our knowledge of the ecology and behaviour of nocturnal mammals

The dingo (Canis familiaris) as a secondary disperser of mycorrhizal fungal spores

Context. Many mycorrhizal fungi are vital to nutrient acquisition in plant communities, and some taxa are reliant on animal-mediated dispersal. The majority of animals that disperse spores are relatively small and have short-distance movement patterns, but carnivores – and especially apex predators – eat many of these small mycophagists and then move greater distances. No studies to date have assessed the ecosystem services carnivores provide through long-distance spore dispersal. Aims. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether Australia's free-ranging dogs (Canis familiaris), including dingoes, act as long-distance spore dispersers by predating smaller mycophagous animals and then secondarily dispersing the fungi consumed by these prey species. Methods. To answerthis question, we collected dingo scats along 40 km of transects in eastern Australia and analysed the scats to determine the presence of fungal spores and prey animals. Using telemetry and passage rate data, we then developed a movement model to predict the spore dispersal potential of dingoes. Key results. We found 16 species of mammalian prey to be eaten by dingoes, and those dingo scats contained spores of 14 genera of mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi were more likely to appear in the scats of dingoes if primary mycophagist prey mammals had been consumed. Our model predicted dingo median spore dispersal distance to be 2050 m and maximum dispersal potential to be 10 700 m. Conclusions. Our study indicates that dingoes are providing a previously overlooked ecosystem service through the long-distance dispersal of mycorrhizal fungi. Many of the fungi found in this study form hypogeous (underground) fruiting bodies that are unable to independently spread spores via wind. Because dingoes move over larger areas than their prey, they are especially important to these ecosystem functions. Implications. Our novel approach to studying an overlooked aspect of predator ecology is applicable in most terrestrial ecosystems. Similar modelling approaches could also be employed to understand the dispersal potential of both primary and secondary spore dispersers globally. Because this study highlights an unrecognised ecosystem service provided by dingoes, we hope that it will stimulate research to develop a more comprehensive understanding of other apex predators' ecosystem functions

ClassifyMe: A Field-Scouting Software for the Identification of Wildlife in Camera Trap Images

We present ClassifyMe a software tool for the automated identification of animal species from camera trap images. ClassifyMe is intended to be used by ecologists both in the field and in the office. Users can download a pre-trained model specific to their location of interest and then upload the images from a camera trap to a laptop or workstation. ClassifyMe will identify animals and other objects (e.g., vehicles) in images, provide a report file with the most likely species detections, and automatically sort the images into sub-folders corresponding to these species categories. False Triggers (no visible object present) will also be filtered and sorted. Importantly, the ClassifyMe software operates on the user's local machine (own laptop or workstation) - not via internet connection. This allows users access to state-of-the-art camera trap computer vision software in situ, rather than only in the office. The software also incurs minimal cost on the end-user as there is no need for expensive data uploads to cloud services. Furthermore, processing the images locally on the users' end-device allows them data control and resolves privacy issues surrounding transfer and third-party access to users' datasets