The youth and the employment situation in Togo.

Since 1993, when Togo got into the democracy process, the economic and the social conditions were affected by the political crisis that emerged from the lack of democracy and respect of human rights by the Togolese authorities. The young people unemployment is one of the major problems that the country is facing. They seem left to themselves. Most of them who are University graduates have to ride Taxi Motorcycles Called “ZEMIDJAN” (in the local language) to survive. What are the causes of the problem? And how can they be tackled? These are few questions we shall try to answer in this small article.Imanitogo

RISK COSTS AND THE CHOICE OF MARKET RETURN INDEX

Six measures of returns are used to estimate the most "“appropriate"” market index for southeast Kansas farms. Results suggest that localized indices are more appropriate than state indices for use as the market index. The appropriate index was used to estimate systematic and nonsystematic risk and risk costs for farm planning. Estimated risks depend on the choice of market index, whereas risk costs depend on the index choice and the risk aversion are considered. More risk-averse specialized farmers are not completely compensated for risk.Farm Management, Risk and Uncertainty,

Systematic and Unsystematic Risk Costs for Southeastern Kansas Farm Enterprises

Six measures of farm returns are used to estimate the most "appropriate" market index for southeastern Kansas farms. Systematic and nonsystematic risks and risk costs are estimated for farm planning. Results suggest that regional indices are more appropriate for use as the market index than state indices.international trade, vector autoregressions, wheat markets, Farm Management,

How farmers permanently adapt to climate evolution by testing new options and caring for food security: case of long-cycle sanyo millet comeback in Serer area in Senegal. [P-3330-58]

During the last decade, Serer farmers of the Sine region in the central and western part of Senegal have started to grow again the sanyo millet (Pennisetum glaucum), a long cycle (110-140 days) and photoperiodic traditional variety that had disappeared for 30 years from this region due to the rainfall decrease which has affected the Sahelian and Sudano-Sahelian zones starting from 1970, leaving only the short-cycle (90 days) souna millet in the fields. We made the assumption that the reintroduction of the sanyo millet could be an agronomic “marker” of the increase in rainfall observed in Senegal since the mid-1990s (Salack and al., 2011) attesting to the capacity of farmers to adapt to the evolution of their environment. We wanted to check, however, whether this necessary climatic opportunity was sufficient to explain farmers choices. We investigated how important was the sanyo comeback in local farming systems, its geographical diffusion, and its biophysical, economic, social and cultural drivers. We carried out (a) simulations of souna and sanyo annual development during the 1950-2013 period using the SarraH©Cirad model; (b) several Focus Group Discussions with farmers; (c) a large survey by questionnaire on farming systems among 1,061 farms in the 30 villages of the IRD human and health observatory zone of Niakhar (monitored since 50 years); and (d) a rapid survey in 240 villages of the region located between Bambey and Diourbel in the North and Fatick in the South (about 1000 km2) on whether the sanyo millet was grown and its date of reintroduction. The SarraH©Cirad crop model was parametered according to previous works. Survey data were carefully analysed using relevant statistics to assess the factors underlying sanyo reintroduction. Crop model simulations confirmed that sanyo reappearance is due to the recent rainfall improvement which now allows getting again grains with this variety whereas since 1970 grains production was only possible with souna. But simulations also show that sanyo yields remain very risky due to the rainfall interannual variability whereas souna yields are higher and surer. They also show that sanyo provides important biomass (stalks and straw). Farmers comments and surveys data analysis complement and confirm the results of the simulations. First, peasants report that they prefer the taste of sanyo and above all the quality of its stems rather than those of souna. In addition, adopting sanyo does not require any specific know-how or investment as it is grown like souna. Its qualities explain why it has quickly spread throughout the area. Sanyo was present in 61% of the sites surveyed in 2013 compared with 23% in 2000. But farmers stress that it is a risky cultivation and that they will not endanger their food security by substituting souna with sanyo. Souna and groundnuts still remain their main staple and cash crops, respectively. They also deplore that sanyo (similarly to souna) cannot provide cash, unlike groundnuts or watermelon that has also expanded in recent years. Statistical analyses highlight some social and family influences since farmers belonging to the “warrior caste” and those whose fathers formerly cultivated sanyo are more likely to cultivate it. But “land resources” appear to be the key factor. Yet, farmers explain they would plant fields dedicated to sanyo only if they were sure to produce enough souna. This is why sanyo is mainly cropped in association with souna, in an average proportion of 1 line of sanyo for 4-5 lines of souna. Moreover farmers point out that they would easily stop sanyo if they had other opportunities, particularly if they provide cash. Thus, despite its spectacular diffusion, sanyo cover very little surfaces: in the zone of Niakhar it was present in 2013 on 2.8% of the cropped areas and on 7.3% of millet areas. Sanyo reappearance and its important and rapid diffusion is clearly an agronomic “marker” of the recent climate evolution (rainfall increase) observed in Senegal. It attests to the adaptive capacity of farmers to quickly and autonomously adapt to the evolution of their environment by permanently looking and trying new options, but underlines how cautious they are to not endanger their food security, and confirms that a climatic opportunity is not sufficient to account for farmers' choices. Comparisons can be made with recent watermelon emergence in the same area and developments of maize and rainfed rice areas in the southern areas of Senegal, which have been enabled by the rainfall evolution but benefit of solid economical drivers. (Texte intégral

FOOD SECURITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: EVIDENCE FROM THE "UNION ECONOMIQUE ET MONÉTAIRE OUEST-AFRICAINE (UEMOA)"

In Sub-Saharan Africa food security will remain a major issue as cereals production is decreasing and their import prices are increasing. If food security involves food availability, accessibility, stability and the utilization of food in a nutritious manner by households, it is important to examine food production stability and consumption diversification as important determinants of food security. This paper examines these relationships in the UEMOA countries. The results indicate relatively stable food productions and weak consumption diversification. As a result the food security levels in the union are overall moderate or low. Thus agricultural policies should focus on existing and potential opportunities that enhance food production and consumption diversification and competitiveness in the Union.Food Security and Poverty,

Revisiting Estimation of Agricultural Production Function for Sustainable Agricultural Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): Evidence from Togo.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the bulk of agricultural output is produced by small holder farmers who continue to depend on rainfall. As such, agricultural economists often use average rainfall as a summative environmental indicator in estimating agricultural production function. This methodology is flawed. A close scrutiny of agricultural practices /agronomic sciences reveals that agricultural output is more determined by rainfall distribution than average rainfall. This relationship is explored in the Togolese context. The conclusion reached is that, between 1965 and 1992, intra-annual rainfall distribution measured by its standard of deviation has not been relevant in explaining the variation of food production in Togo due to the continuous degradation of the ecosystems. This result provides additional information for improved decision making and calls for urgent account of environmental aspects in the formulation of sustainable agricultural policies in SSA.Environmental Economics and Policy, Productivity Analysis,

Effectiveness of bylaws in the management of natural resources: The West African experience

"The role of various stakeholders in the management of natural resources is not clear in the West African countries. This paper discusses the historical changes in power delegation from central origins to peripheral institutions. The analysis covers the rise of bylaws across the Western African countries and links the multiplicity of bylaws to the amplification of the decentralization movement. On the basis of a literature review and their own practitioners' experiences, the authors demonstrate the pertinence of bylaws as a tool for better management of natural resources. In the West African Francophone context, bylaws could stand both for regulations enacted by decentralized authorities or “local conventions” binding village community groups. Where formal bylaws suffer from limited enforcement, local people continue, through their traditional representatives, to engage in the negotiation of local conventions for the management of natural resources. According to the authors, there is a need to recognize local conventions, which offer an opportunity for decentralization to be more rooted in local situations. Through such conventions, traditional institutions prove their ability to reshape with decentralization even if decentralization reforms and national forestry laws have ignored them across West Africa." authors' abstractBylaws, Natural resource management, Decentralization, Environmental management, Devolution,

Are Women In Lomé Getting Their Desired Methods Of Contraception? Understanding Provider Bias From Restrictions To Choice.

Background: Despite improvements in contraception availability, women face persistent barriers that compromise reproductive autonomy and informed choice. Provider bias is one way in which access to contraception can be restricted within clinical encounters and has been established as common in sub-Saharan Africa. This analysis assessed the prevalence of provider restrictions and the potential impact on womens method uptake in Lomé, Togo. Methods: This sub-analysis used survey data from provider and client interviews collected to assess the impacts of the Agir pour la Planification Familiale (AgirPF) program in Togo. The relationships between provider restrictiveness and womens receipt of their desired method of contraception were modelled using mixed effects logistic regressions looking at all women and among subgroups hypothesized to be at potentially higher risk of bias. Results: Around 84% of providers reported a restriction in contraceptive provision for the five contraceptive methods explored (pill, male condom, injectable, IUD, and implant). Around 53% of providers reported restricting at least four of the five methods based on age, parity, partner consent, or marital status. Among all women, there were no significant associations between provider restrictiveness and womens receipt of desired method, including among those who desired long-acting methods. In adjusted modeling, marital status was a covariate significantly associated with desired method, with married women more likely to receive their desired method than unmarried women (aOR 2.73, 95% CI 1.45-5.13). Conclusion: Provider reports of high levels of restrictions in this population are concerning and should be further explored, especially its effects on unmarried women. However, restrictions reported by providers in this study did not appear to statistically significantly influence contraceptive method received