Physics of Neutron Star Crusts

The physics of neutron star crusts is vast, involving many different research fields, from nuclear and condensed matter physics to general relativity. This review summarizes the progress, which has been achieved over the last few years, in modeling neutron star crusts, both at the microscopic and macroscopic levels. The confrontation of these theoretical models with observations is also briefly discussed.Comment: 182 pages, published version available at <http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2008-10

A922 Sequential measurement of 1 hour creatinine clearance (1-CRCL) in critically ill patients at risk of acute kidney injury (AKI)

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Larvicidal effects of Chinaberry (Melia azederach) powder on Anopheles arabiensis in Ethiopia

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Synthetic insecticides are employed in the widely-used currently favored malaria control techniques involving indoor residual spraying and treated bednets. These methods have repeatedly proven to be highly effective at reducing malaria incidence and prevalence. However, rapidly emerging mosquito resistance to the chemicals and logistical problems in transporting supplies to remote locations threaten the long-term sustainability of these techniques. Chinaberry (<it>Melia azederach</it>) extracts have been shown to be effective growth-inhibiting larvicides against several insects. Because several active chemicals in the trees' seeds have insecticidal properties, the emergence of resistance is unlikely. Here, we investigate the feasibility of Chinaberry as a locally available, low-cost sustainable insecticide that can aid in controlling malaria. Chinaberry fruits were collected from Asendabo, Ethiopia. The seeds were removed from the fruits, dried and crushed into a powder. From developmental habitats in the same village, <it>Anopheles arabiensis </it>larvae were collected and placed into laboratory containers. Chinaberry seed powder was added to the larval containers at three treatment levels: 5 g m^-2, 10 g m^-2and 20 g m^-2, with 100 individual larvae in each treatment level and a control. The containers were monitored daily and larvae, pupae and adult mosquitoes were counted. This experimental procedure was replicated three times.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Chinaberry seed powder caused an inhibition of emergence of 93% at the 5 g m^-2treatment level, and 100% inhibition of emergence at the two higher treatment levels. The Chinaberry had a highly statistically significant larvicidal effect at all treatment levels (χ²= 184, 184, and 155 for 5 g m^-2, 10 g m^-2and 20 g m^-2, respectively; p < 0.0001 in all cases). In addition, estimates suggest that sufficient Chinaberry seed exists in Asendabo to treat developmental habitat for the duration of the rainy season and support a field trial.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Chinaberry seed is a very potent growth-inhibiting larvicide against the major African malaria vector <it>An. arabiensis</it>. The seed could provide a sustainable additional malaria vector control tool that can be used where the tree is abundant and where <it>An. arabiensis </it>is a dominant vector. Based on these results, a future village-scale field trial using the technique is warranted.</p

Fighting malaria in Madhya Pradesh (Central India): Are we loosing the battle?

Malaria control in Madhya Pradesh is complex because of vast tracts of forest with tribal settlement. Fifty four million individuals of various ethnic origins, accounting for 8% of the total population of India, contributed 30% of total malaria cases, 60% of total falciparum cases and 50% of malaria deaths in the country. Ambitious goals to control tribal malaria by launching "Enhanced Malaria Control Project" (EMCP) by the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP), with the World Bank assistance, became effective in September 1997 in eight north Indian states. Under EMCP, the programme used a broader mix of new interventions, i.e. insecticide-treated bed nets, spraying houses with effective residual insecticides, use of larvivorous fishes, rapid diagnostic tests for prompt diagnosis, treatment of the sick with effective radical treatment and increased public awareness and IEC. However, the challenge is to scale up these services

Impact of insecticide-treated nets on wild pyrethroid resistant Anopheles epiroticus population from southern Vietnam tested in experimental huts

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In this study, the efficacy of insecticide-treated nets was evaluated in terms of deterrence, blood-feeding inhibition, induced exophily and mortality on a wild resistant population of <it>Anopheles epiroticus </it>in southern Vietnam, in order to gain insight into the operational consequences of the insecticide resistance observed in this malaria vector in the Mekong delta.</p> <p>Method</p> <p>An experimental station, based on the model of West Africa and adapted to the behaviour of the target species, was built in southern Vietnam. The study design was adapted from the WHO phase 2 guidelines. The study arms included a conventionally treated polyester net (CTN) with deltamethrin washed just before exhaustion, the WHO recommended long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) PermaNet 2.0^®unwashed and 20 times washed and PermaNet 3.0^®, designed for the control of pyrethroid resistant vectors, unwashed and 20 times washed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The nets still provided personal protection against the resistant <it>An. epiroticus </it>population. The personal protection ranged from 67% for deltamethrin CTN to 85% for unwashed PermaNet 3.0. Insecticide resistance in the <it>An. epiroticus </it>mosquitoes did not seem to alter the deterrent effect of pyrethroids. A significant higher mortality was still observed among the treatment arms despite the fact that the <it>An. epiroticus </it>population is resistant against the tested insecticides.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>This study shows that CTN and LLINs still protect individuals against a pyrethroid resistant malaria vector from the Mekong region, where insecticide resistance is caused by a metabolic mechanism. In the light of a possible elimination of malaria from the Mekong region these insights in operational consequences of the insecticide resistance on control tools is of upmost importance.</p

The effect of repeated washing of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) on the feeding success and survival rates of Anopheles gambiae

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Insecticide-treated nets protect users from mosquito bites, thereby preventing transmissions of mosquito borne pathogens. Repeated washing of nets removes insecticide on the netting rendering them ineffective within a short period. Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) offer longer time protection against such bites because they are more wash resistant, and are preferred to conventionally treated nets. However, there is limited information on the effect of repeated washing of LLINs on the feeding success and survival of wild malaria vectors.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The current study evaluated the effect of repeated washing of four brands of LLINs on the feeding success and survival rates of <it>Anopheles gambiae </it>sl reared from wild strains. In this study, two- to five-day old F1s, reared from gravid mosquitoes collected from an area with a high coverage of LLINs were offered blood meals through protective barriers of the above LLINs. Mosquitoes were exposed for a period of 10 minutes each time. Nets were tested unwashed and subsequently after every 5^ththrough wash 15. After exposure mosquitoes were sorted out according to their feeding status. They were then held under normal laboratory conditions for 24 hours and mortality was scored in both fed and unfed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>It was observed that mosquitoes did not feed through a barrier of unwashed LLINs. However, the feeding success and survival rates increased with successive number of washes and were also net brand dependant. After 15 washes, 49% of vectors succeeded to feed through a protective barrier of PermaNet 2.0 and 50% of the fed died after 24 hrs while after the same number of washes 60% of vectors succeeded to feed through Olyset brand of LLINs and all of them survived. In general, more mosquitoes survived after feeding through Olyset compared to the other four brands that were evaluated. When efficacy of individual LLINs was compared by a t-test analysis to a conventionally treated net, the results were not significantly different statistically for Olyset (<it>p = </it>0.239) and NetProtect (TNT) (<it>p = </it>0.135). However, the results were highly significant when comparison was made with PermaNet and Interceptor (BASF); <it>p </it>values 0.015 and 0.025 respectively.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The result of this study shows that repeated washing of LLINs at short time intervals using local washing methods may render them infective within a short time in preventing local vectors from feeding.</p

Rapid decrease of malaria morbidity following the introduction of community-based monitoring in a rural area of central Vietnam

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Despite a successful control programme, malaria has not completely disappeared in Vietnam; it remains endemic in remote areas of central Vietnam, where standard control activities seem to be less effective. The evolution of malaria prevalence and incidence over two and half years in a rural area of central Vietnam, after the introduction of community-based monitoring of malaria cases, is presented.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>After a complete census, six cross-sectional surveys and passive detection of malaria cases (by village and commune health workers using rapid diagnostic tests) were carried out between March 2004 and December 2006 in Ninh-Thuan province, in a population of about 10,000 individuals. The prevalence of malaria infection and the incidence of clinical cases were estimated.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Malaria prevalence significantly decreased from 13.6% (281/2,068) in December 2004 to 4.0% (80/2,019) in December 2006. <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>and <it>Plasmodium vivax </it>were the most common infections with few <it>Plasmodium malariae </it>mono-infections and some mixed infections. During the study period, malaria incidence decreased by more than 50%, from 25.7/1,000 population at risk in the second half of 2004 to 12.3/1,000 in the second half of 2006. The incidence showed seasonal variations, with a yearly peak between June and December, except in 2006 when the peak observed in the previous years did not occur.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Over a 2.5-year follow-up period, malaria prevalence and incidence decreased by more than 70% and 50%, respectively. Possibly, this could be attributed to the setting up of a passive case detection system based on village health workers, indicating that a major impact on the malaria burden can be obtained whenever prompt diagnosis and adequate treatment are available.</p