The Economics of Extortion: Theory and Evidence on the Sicilian Mafia

This paper studies extortion of firms operating in legal sectors by a profit-maximizing criminal organization. We develop a simple principal-agent model under asymmetric information to find the Mafia-optimal extortion as a function of firms' observable characteristics, namely size and sector. We test the predictions of the model on a unique dataset on extortion in Sicily, the Italian region where the most powerful criminal organization, the Mafia, operates. In line with our theoretical model, our empirical findings show that extortion is strongly concave in firm's size and highly regressive. The percentage of profits appropriated by Mafia ranges from 40% for small firms to 2% for large firms. We derive some implications of these findings on market structure and economic developmen

Cardiac conduction arteries in infants: Early atherosclerotic lesions of fibromuscular hyperplasia/dysplasia?

Aims Aim of the present study is to examine in 70 infants dying suddenly the morphologic structure of the cardiac conduction system arteries.Background Although early atherosclerotic lesions of the coronary arteries detectable in infants and even in fetuses have been described, little attention has been given to the possible involvement of the cardiac conduction system arteries. Methods Among the total of over 120 autopsied cases of infants dying suddenly and unexpectedly referred, after the exclusion of violent causes, to our Institute to perform more accurate and specialized investigations, 70 cases (47 males and 23 females) were selected for this study. The age ranged from 40 days to 243 days (mean ± SEM= 101 ± 23.07). A complete autopsy was performed, according to our autopsy protocol. Histological observations were focused on the cardiac conduction system which was examined on serial sections.Results In 15 cases (21.43%), early atherosclerotic lesions of the cardiac conduction system were detected, marked by thickening and deposits of amorphous material and mainly lipids in the intima, fragmentation of the elastic fiber system. A significant correlation is evident between these early atherosclerotic lesions and parental cigarette smoking (p<0.05, chi-square test). Conclusions We suggest that such lesions in infants might be first regarded as early atherosclerotic lesions instead of fibromuscular hyperplasia or dysplasia of the cardiac conduction system arteries. However, a diagnosis of fibromuscular hyperplasia/dysplasia cannot be excluded in some cases

Pathology and apoptosis of the cardiac conduction system in 100 victims of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

Objectives The aim of this study is to determine the presence and possible significance of morphological changes and apoptosis in the cardiac conduction system in SIDS. Background Both the morphological and functional derangement of the cardiac conduction system underlying the SIDS remain poorly understood. Methods We analyze 100 cases of SIDS, ranging in age from 3 to 365 days, and 24 age-matched control infants (ED, explained death). The cardiac conduction system was removed in two blocks: the first included the sino-atrial node and the crista terminalis, the second contained the atrio-ventricular node, His bundle, bifurcation, and bundle branches. The histological examination was performed on serial sections, using in situ endolabeling of fragmented DNA (TUNEL). Results The following findings were observed: resorptive degeneration (97% SIDS, 80% ED), His bundle dispersion (33% SIDS, 17% ED), Mahaim fibers (23% SIDS, 8% ED), cartilaginous meta-hyperplasia (6% SIDS, 4% ED), persistent fetal dispersion (25% SIDS, 17% ED), left sided His bundle (20% SIDS, 8% ED), hemorrhage of the atrio-ventricular junction (16% SIDS, 0% ED), septation of the bifurcation (13% SIDS, 0% ED), atrio-ventricular node dispersion (7% SIDS, 0% ED), sinus node hypoplasia (6% SIDS, 0% ED), Zahn node (3% SIDS, 0% ED), His bundle hypoplasia (5% SIDS, 0% ED), atrio-ventricular node dualism (3% SIDS, 0% ED). Conclusions All these findings have all been documented and discussed as morphological substrate for lethal arrhythmias in SIDS. The presence of accessory pathways can play an important role as pathogenic backgrounds of a significant number of cardio-arrhythmogenic SIDS

Unexplained stillbirth versus SIDS: common congenital diseases of the autonomic nervous system--pathology and nosology

Objective: To contribute to a more balanced assessment of the morphological substrates underlying unexplained perinatal death and SIDS. Methods: In-depth histological, immunohistochemical and genetic examinations were performed on the autonomic nervous and cardiac conduction systems in 95 unexpected perinatal deaths, 140 SIDS and 78 controls (44 infants and 34 perinatal death victims). Results: The study revealed the localization and the nature of a variety of specific congenital abnormalities of the autonomic nervous system, central and peripheral, and of the cardiac conduction system that represent the morphological substrates of the pathophysiological mechanism of sudden fetal death and SIDS. Conclusions: The observation of similar anomalies of the autonomic nervous and the cardiac conduction systems in both unexplained perinatal deaths and SIDS indicates their common congenital nature. Therefore, the definitions of these deaths, currently nosographically distinct, should be unified. \ua9 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved

Severe intra- and periventricular hemorrhage: role of arteriolosclerosis related to maternal smoke

The authors aimed to describe the atherosclerotic lesions of the cerebral arterioles, as a substrate of their rupture and bleeding for ests. The study was performed on brain of 9 caucasian fetal victims of intra- and periventricular hemorrhage, all grade IV, and 9 control cases. In the 9 victims of hemorrhage the arteriolar wall structure was altered, focally transformed into a deposit of amorphous eosinophilic material. Such changes often affected the full-thickness of the wall, causing rupture and hemorrhage. In 8 of these cases and in 2 victims of the control group the mothers were heavy cigarette smokers (15-20 cigarettes/day) before and during pregnancy. The authors conclude that intra- and periventricular haemorrhage can be ascribed to the toxic effects of prenatal absorption of nicotine

Study of the human hypoglossal nucleus: normal development and morpho-functional alterations in sudden unexplained late fetal and infant death

This study evaluated the development and the involvement in sudden perinatal and infant death of the medullary hypoglossal nucleus, a nucleus that, besides to coordinate swallowing, chewing and vocalization, takes part in inspiration. Through histological, morphometrical and immunohistochemical methods in 65 cases of perinatal and infant victims (29 stillbirths, 7 newborns and 29 infants), who died of both unknown and known cause, the authors observed developmental anomalies of the hypoglossal nucleus (HGN) in high percentage of sudden unexplained fetal and infant deaths. In particular, HGN hypoplasia, hyperplasia, positive expression of somatostatin and absence of interneurons were frequently found particularly in infant deaths, with a significant correlation with maternal smoking

Feto-Placental Atherosclerotic Lesions in Intrauterine Fetal Demise: Role of Parental Cigarette Smoking

The atherogenic effect of cigarette smoking is already recognizable in coronary arteries of fetuses in the last gestational weeks. In this study we analyzed the atherogenic effect of mother’s and father’s smoking habit on coronary arteries and even on adnexa of 30 human fresh fetuses died from 32 to 41 gestational weeks. In 12 cases only the mothers of the victims were cigarette smokers, in 7 cases only the fathers were smokers, whereas in 11 cases nobody smoked

Italian national data bank of stillbirth vs. SIDS.

Sudden perinatal death, which includes antepartum death (from 22 completed weeks of gestation), intrapartum death and early neonatal death (occurring within seven completed days of life), and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), represents one of the major sociomedical and scientific problems still lacking a solution in today\u2019s medicine.1 However, little effort is being made to find a cause of these deaths, as there is no standard method of performing an autopsy in these victims, and no database exists from which researchers can draw autopsy results. Therefore, the need to submit the young victims to necropsy procedures through a standardized protocol is unanimously recognized, and the chance of preventing perinatal unexpected death and SIDS relies mainly on a better knowledge of the underlying alterations of organs and etiopathogenetic mechanisms. Similarly, for diagnostic purposes, an accurate and careful examination of the circumstantial, environmental, and familial situation within which the death occurred is extremely important. All the information related to victims of sudden and unexplained fetal death and SIDS will soon be made available in Italy through a specific data bank established under the Law 31/2006 \u201cRegulations for Diagnostic Post Mortem Investigation in Victims of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and Unexpected Fetal Death.\u201d2 This law mandates that infants who die suddenly within one year of life, and fetuses that die after 22 weeks of gestation without any apparent cause, must be rapidly submitted\u2014with the consent of both parents\u2014to diagnostic postmortem investigation.3 Information about the pregnancy, fetal development and delivery, and, in the case of SIDS, the environmental and familial situation in which the death occurred\u2014in addition to information related to risk factors\u2014must be collected by the obstetriciangynecologist, neonatologist, pediatrician, and pathologist involved in the case and recorded in the registry of the data bank. In addition, to facilitate the collection and analysis of the data, this data bank will allow the Lino Rossi Research Center in collaboration with the Epidemiology Center of the Italian National Health Institute to update the population through public education and prevention programs aimed at decreasing the incidence of stillbirth and SIDS