Testing the potential of a virtual reality neurorehabilitation system during performance of observation, imagery and imitation of motor actions recorded by wireless functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Background Several neurorehabilitation strategies have been introduced over the last decade based on the so-called simulation hypothesis. This hypothesis states that a neural network located in primary and secondary motor areas is activated not only during overt motor execution, but also during observation or imagery of the same motor action. Based on this hypothesis, we investigated the combination of a virtual reality (VR) based neurorehabilitation system together with a wireless functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) instrument. This combination is particularly appealing from a rehabilitation perspective as it may allow minimally constrained monitoring during neurorehabilitative training. Methods fNIRS was applied over F3 of healthy subjects during task performance in a virtual reality (VR) environment: 1) 'unilateral' group (N = 15), contralateral recording during observation, motor imagery, observation & motor imagery, and imitation of a grasping task performed by a virtual limb (first-person perspective view) using the right hand; 2) 'bilateral' group (N = 8), bilateral recording during observation and imitation of the same task using the right and left hand alternately. Results In the unilateral group, significant within-condition oxy-hemoglobin concentration Δ[O2Hb] changes (mean ± SD μmol/l) were found for motor imagery (0.0868 ± 0.5201 μmol/l) and imitation (0.1715 ± 0.4567 μmol/l). In addition, the bilateral group showed a significant within-condition Δ[O2Hb] change for observation (0.0924 ± 0.3369 μmol/l) as well as between-conditions with lower Δ[O2Hb] amplitudes during observation compared to imitation, especially in the ipsilateral hemisphere (p < 0.001). Further, in the bilateral group, imitation using the non-dominant (left) hand resulted in larger Δ[O2Hb] changes in both the ipsi- and contralateral hemispheres as compared to using the dominant (right) hand. Conclusions This study shows that our combined VR-fNIRS based neurorehabilitation system can activate the action-observation system as described by the simulation hypothesis during performance of observation, motor imagery and imitation of hand actions elicited by a VR environment. Further, in accordance with previous studies, the findings of this study revealed that both inter-subject variability and handedness need to be taken into account when recording in untrained subjects. These findings are of relevance for demonstrating the potential of the VR-fNIRS instrument in neurofeedback applications

The art and science of conducting economic impact studies

As the awareness and interest in sport tourism as an economic catalyst increases, so do the number of related economic impact studies. These studies have been commissioned by organising bodies as well as supportive governmental and sponsoring officials for differing purposes. Nevertheless, due to the complexity of economic impact research, the broad scope of sport tourism and the involvement of numerous variables, many such previous studies were flawed in design, resulting in fallacious conclusions pertaining to the amount of economic impact brought to a community. The authors of this paper, through reviewing more than 50 economic impact studies, attempted to unveil the art and science of economic impact research, the goal being to help sport tourism managers obtain a better understanding of economic impact research in the light of how to conduct, interpret and evaluate such studies. The scope of an economic impact study; that is, the economic region to be studied, is the first issue that needs to be addressed. Without clearly defining the impact region, it would be impossible to exclude those unqualified visitors and their expenditures from the final estimates of economic impact. The use of multipliers is the next issue to be addressed. A decision must be made as to whether or not a multiplier should be applied and if so, which type to use. The cause and source of economic impact must also be determined prior to the execution of an impact study. As related to sport tourism, a cause is a sport event, facility, or organisation that brings about the activity that impacts the economy of the host community. Another issue discussed pertains to the different methods (survey and non-survery) for collecting data. Visitor spending on lodging, food and beverage, entertainment, transportation and miscellaneous retail are common elements collected through a survey. Construction costs, player salaries, advertising fees, and tax revenues are samples of the sources of impact that need to be dealt with cautiously. Both the survey and non-survey methods have their own merits, shortcomings and circumstances to use. Attribution, accessibility, time delays and appropriateness are four problems associated with secondary data collection that could affect the accuracy of data. The different uses of vocabulary and the selective inclusion of information (tangible vs non-tan gible impacts), are but two issues related to the reporting of economic impact study results. A total of 11 types of expenditure have been identified that are commonly excluded from economic impact studies due to the difficulty in data collection. In conclusion, when evaluating an economic study, one needs to consider the study's relevance, scope, efficiency, accuracy and verification. </jats:p

The ultimate guide to sports marketing. 2nd ed.

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The ultimate guide to sport event management and marketing

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