HIPC relief: Too late, too little? Perspectives from a new qualifier, Tanzania

In 1970 the external debt of Tanzania, a least developed country, was 16.8 per cent of GDP and 58.6 per cent of exports. The ratio of per capita debt to per capita income was 14.4 per cent. By 2001 the debt had reached just over 100 per cent of GDP and over 11 times the value of exports, with a per capita debt to per capita income ratio of 102 per cent. By any wisdom this is a terrifying story. Efforts to address the debt burden have involved own initiatives and global initiatives, the latest being the enhanced HIPC Initiative. What are the new prospects? This paper attempts to assess the potency of the HIPC Initiative in addressing the key agenda items in Tanzania: poverty reduction/eradication and resolving the external debt burden. The assessment involves analysing long-term trends in debt build-up and debt servicing obligations as well as Tanzania’s efforts in order to become eligible for the enhanced initiative, though still attempting to achieve the completion point at over 16 months after reaching the decision point. The main conclusions are that relief comes too late to address adverse impacts and is too little to meet poverty targets. This calls on Tanzania to concentrate on complementary measures and the HIPC Initiative to undergo refinements like addressing the time lag between decision and completion points, and incorporating ratio of recurrent expenditure as a threshold level. – HIPC ; debt ; Tanzani

HIPC Relief: Too Little, Too Late? Perspectives from a New Qualifier, Tanzania

HIPC, debt, Tanzania

DECENTRALIZATION AND THE FINANCING OF ACCESS TO SECONDARY EDUCATION IN CAMEROON: COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTIONS COUNTS?

Communities play a key role in educational development in many countries. In Cameroon, a number of legislations transfer certain educational responsibilities from the central government to local communities in line with the decentralized form of the state. Using the 2015/2016 academic year as the basis for assessment, this study examined the extent to which communities are responsive to the educational tasks assigned to them, and whether their contributions counts with regard to access to secondary education. Focus was on a sample of 65 randomly selected secondary schools in Fako Division of the South West Region of Cameroon. Principals from the schools responded to a questionnaire – the main instrument for data collection. Interviews were also held with parents, community leaders, councils and other stakeholders to complement questionnaire responses. Research data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and finding presented in the form of frequencies and proportions. Multinomial Logistic Regression Model was used to appraise the predictive power of community contributions on access to secondary education. The findings showed that community financing was little to inexistent and did not account for the relatively good access to secondary education reported. A major recommendation was for the government to effectively implement the process of decentralization by adequately empowering communities and other stakeholders at the decentralized level with finances and other resources needed to enhance the volume and quality of their participation in the achievement of state’s development concerns.  Article visualizations

DEGREE STRUCTURE AND RECOGNITION BEFORE AND WITHIN THE BOLOGNA PROCESS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN HIGHER EDUCATION IN CAMEROON AND THE UNITED KINGDOM

The development of higher education systems has been marked by significant efforts aimed at promoting compatibility, comparability, international competitiveness, and attractiveness. A key initiative in this regard is the Bologna Process, launched in 1998-1999 to create the European Higher Education Area. The Bologna Process has had a far-reaching impact, shaping higher education practices and policies both in Europe and globally. This research investigates degree structure and recognition before and within the Bologna Process, focusing on higher education in Cameroon and the United Kingdom. Phillips and Ochs’ circular model of policy-borrowing was employed to aid the understanding of the Bologna Process as a transnational model within contemporary higher education. Data was analyzed qualitatively using documents - from a comparative standpoint. Findings revealed that HE in Cameroon and the UK exhibit commonalities, differences, and challenges. In terms of commonalities, both HE systems have scrapped off, modified, and retained some old degrees that existed in the pre-LMD and pre-BP era, respectively. However, both HE systems differ in the types of intermediary degrees offered and the duration of their study cycles in the pre-LMD/LMD and pre-BP/BP eras. We argue that, despite Bologna’s recent efforts to have a three-cycle degree system (Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctorate) across higher education systems, however, the 2001 Prague Communique, which encouraged higher education institutions to take advantage of national legislations to facilitate degrees and other awards, and the 2005 Bergen Communique which adopted an overarching framework for qualifications in the EHEA, comprising three cycles - including, within national contexts, the possibility of intermediate qualifications – partly explain existing divergence of degrees and degree structures between contemporary higher education in Cameroon and the UK, and possibly beyond, thus having implications for recognition. The paper recommends the need for HE policymakers in Cameroon, the UK and beyond to engage in policy dialogue, exchange of good practices and effectively collaborate to mitigate degree recognition barriers.  Article visualizations

PUBLIC POLICY ON EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY CAMEROON: PERSPECTIVES, ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Public policy is critical in defining the direction of any institution, organization or country, including its education sector. An education policy as a public policy enhances, authenticates and regulates educational processes in a nation. A good education policy must be anchored on the attributes of good policy. Since independence, the Cameroon government has adopted different educational legislations which have guided educational processes over the years. While some scholars view these as constituting Cameroon’s education policy, others argue that their disjointed and incomprehensive nature does not qualify what exists as education policy. This conceptual paper critically examined public policy on education in contemporary Cameroon vis-à-vis the attributes of a good policy. It fortifies the existing structure for potential subsequent studies in education policy, and correlation with such variables as system effectiveness. The paper draws from the fact that educational policy lapses have constituted backdrop for the recent and ongoing conflict in the Anglophone regions of the country. Hence, it raises issues and offers insight intended to stimulate education policy makers towards action. The authors conclude that there is a big vacuum in terms of comprehensiveness, quality, adequacy and access in Cameroon’s education policy as a close comparative look at the situation in other African countries shows that Cameroon does not have one. The paper thus recommends on the urgent need for a National Conference on Education of the like of the 1995 Education Forum tasked among others to review all disjointed educational legislations and establish a comprehensive education policy to guide and regulate educational practices in the country’s two sub-systems of education.  Article visualizations

Pneumococcal carriage in sub-Saharan Africa--a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Pneumococcal epidemiology varies geographically and few data are available from the African continent. We assess pneumococcal carriage from studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa (sSA) before and after the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) era. METHODS: A search for pneumococcal carriage studies published before 2012 was conducted to describe carriage in sSA. The review also describes pneumococcal serotypes and assesses the impact of vaccination on carriage in this region. RESULTS: Fifty-seven studies were included in this review with the majority (40.3%) from South Africa. There was considerable variability in the prevalence of carriage between studies (I-squared statistic = 99%). Carriage was higher in children and decreased with increasing age, 63.2% (95% CI: 55.6-70.8) in children less than 5 years, 42.6% (95% CI: 29.9-55.4) in children 5-15 years and 28.0% (95% CI: 19.0-37.0) in adults older than 15 years. There was no difference in the prevalence of carriage between males and females in 9/11 studies. Serotypes 19F, 6B, 6A, 14 and 23F were the five most common isolates. A meta-analysis of four randomized trials of PCV vaccination in children aged 9-24 months showed that carriage of vaccine type (VT) serotypes decreased with PCV vaccination; however, overall carriage remained the same because of a concomitant increase in non-vaccine type (NVT) serotypes. CONCLUSION: Pneumococcal carriage is generally high in the African continent, particularly in young children. The five most common serotypes in sSA are among the top seven serotypes that cause invasive pneumococcal disease in children globally. These serotypes are covered by the two PCVs recommended for routine childhood immunization by the WHO. The distribution of serotypes found in the nasopharynx is altered by PCV vaccination

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus multiple sites surveillance: a systemic review of the literature.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the optimal number of sampling sites for detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization. METHODS: We performed a Medline search from January 1966 to February 2014 for articles that reported the prevalence of MRSA at different body sites. Studies were characterized by study design, country and period of the study, number of patients and/or isolates of MRSA, specimen type, sites of MRSA isolation, study population sampled, diagnostic testing method, and percentage of the MRSA isolates at each site in relation to the total number of sites. RESULTS: We reviewed 3,211 abstracts and 177 manuscripts, of which 17 met the criteria for analysis (n=52,642 patients). MRSA colonization prevalence varied from 8% to 99% at different body sites. The nasal cavity as a single site had MRSA detection sensitivity of 68% (34%-91%). The throat and nares gave the highest detection rates as single sites. A combination of two swabs improved MRSA detection rates with the best combination being groin/throat (89.6%; 62.5%-100%). A combination of three swab sites improved MRSA detection rate to 94.2% (81%-100%) with the best combination being groin/nose/throat. Certain combinations were associated with low detection rates. MRSA detection rates also varied with different culture methods. CONCLUSION: A combination of three swabs from different body sites resulted in the highest detection rate for MRSA colonization. The use of three swab sites would likely improve the recognition and treatment of MRSA colonization, which may in turn reduce infection and transmission of MRSA to other patients

Comparison of Xpert GBS v. culture for rapid detection of group B streptococcus in pregnant women: Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values

Background. Group B streptococcus (GBS) is a leading cause of invasive disease, particularly in newborns. Seventy-five percent of neonates will be colonised by mothers carrying the organism. Confirmation of maternal colonisation with GBS is essential for prompt treatment and prevention of neonatal sepsis. The current gold standard of culture for isolation of GBS has a disadvantage of long turnaround time (24 - 72 hours). Rapid assays are required to determine maternal carriage of GBS.Objectives. To determine the usefulness of the Xpert GBS technology v. culture methods to detect GBS carriage in pregnant women.Methods. This was a prospective observational study of 284 pregnant women between 26 and 37 weeks’ gestation. Two vaginorectal swabs were collected from each participant. One swab was processed using the gold-standard culture method, while the second swab was processed using the Xpert GBS assay. The performance of the Xpert GBS assay was then compared with that of the culture method.Results. Two swabs were processed from each of 284 pregnant women between 26 and 37 weeks’ gestation. Culture detected 70 GBS isolates from a total of 279 specimens (25.1%), whereas the Xpert GBS detected 66 positive specimens (23.7%). The Xpert GBS assay had a sensitivity of 87% and specificity of 98%, with a positive predictive value of 92% and a negative predictive value of 96%.Conclusions. The Xpert GBS assay is a rapid and sensitive tool for prenatal detection of GBS. The assay should ideally be available in every labour ward, where women can be screened for GBS on arrival

Age at sexual debut: A determinant of multiple partnership among South African youth

Age at sexual debut is an important determinant of HIV infection. The paper investigates the effects of age at sexual debut on sexual behaviour among South African youth. Among 2 875 respondents who ever had sexual intercourse, 39% had early sexual debut (sexual debut at age 16 years and below). Males (44.6%) were significantly more likely than females (35.1%) to report early sexual debut (odds ratio (OR)=1.45, p-value <0.001). Multiple sexual partners are significantly more common among those that had early sexual debut (10.4% vs. 4.8%) than those who had late sexual debut, (OR=2.29, p-value<0.001). Those aged 15 to 19 years were 1.4 times more likely to report multiple partners compared to those aged 20 to 24 years. Delaying sexual debut is a strategy many national programmes are promoting. The results of this study provide additional arguments to support such initiatives and show the need to strengthen intervention targeting youth (Afr. J. Reprod. Health 2010; 14[2]:47-54)

Investigation of microstructure, and mechanical properties of dissimilar high and ultra-high steel welded joints: application for extreme climate conditions

The paper focuses on the technical challenges of producing high-quality welds in modern extreme climate conditions structures, as welds are typically the weakest part of welded structures. Welding is particularly difficult with high-strength and ultra-high-strength steels (HSS-UHSS), which are used in structures to reduce weight. The microstructural compositions and mechanical properties of dissimilar high-strength and ultra-high-strength steels were investigated in this study, which was performed with three different heat inputs (0.8, 1.2, and 1.8 kJ/mm). There was a 2.3Cr, 0.4Si, and 2.8Mn increase on the FGHAZ microstructure of the S960QC side, confirming the temperature increase in that zone. Microhardness results show softening (160 HV5) in the E500 side's fine grain heat-affected zone (FGHAZ). Bending test results show that when the maximum force applied was 4000N, the fracture angle was close to 149°, and that the fracture zone was oriented exclusively in the FGHAZ, which had the higher softening zone. Tensile results show the fracture zone, which was oriented in the E500 side's FGHAZ. It was suggested that a heat input of 1.2 kJ/mm be applied to the weld dissimilar joint of TMCP E500-S960QC, which will be beneficial for extreme climate conditions.