Khirbet al-Batrawy ceramics. A systematic mineralogical and petrographic study for investigating the material culture

The present paper reports the results of a mineralogical and petrographic study focused on the archaeometric characterization of Early Bronze Age pottery from the archaeological site of Khirbet al-Batrawy (Jordan), dated between 3000 and 2000 BC. Optical microscopy (OM) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) analyses are used to define the nature of the raw material, the technology of the ceramic production and their developing during the centuries. The results allow us to identify 12 petrographic fabrics in which the nature of the inclusions is consistent with the geological surrounding of Khirbet al-Batrawy. The variability observed in the fabrics suggests a technological evolution during the centuries, characterized by a first start-up phase in the ceramic production, followed by a diffuse experimentation in the choice of the starting raw material and a last standardization phase. The co-occurrence of primary calcite, illite, gehlenite and diopside allows hypothesizing a firing temperature lower than 950 °C. A moderate increasing in the firing temperature is observed in the last phases of Batrawy history, suggesting a development of knowledge connected to the firing process

Glazed roman ceramic. A multi-analytical approach

A multi-analytical approach has been applied to characterize ancient glazed ceramics from the archaeological sites of Magna Mater temple and Domus Tiberiana on the Palatine Hill (Rome, Italy) dated between the 3rd and the early 5th century AD. The aim of this work is to investigate the production technologies of the ceramic body and the glazed coating and to explore the nature and the provenance of the raw materials. Optical microscopy (OM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) results showed that the ceramic body is composed by quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase, fragments of igneous and sedimentary rocks. The firing temperature was estimated at about 900-1000 °C, in uncontrolled atmosphere conditions. The mineralogical assemblage of the ceramic body is consistent with a local source of the raw materials. The results of electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) showed that the glazes contain different Si/ Pb ratios. In addition, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) detected the presence of Sn although its concentration does not allow defining the studied samples as tin-glazed ceramics. However, the occurrence of this element indicates an atypical Roman production, never recognized before in coeval samples from other archaeological sites

Multi-analytical study of ceramic materials from the archaeological site of Khirbet al-Batrawy (Jordan)

Nel presente lavoro sono riportati i risultati di uno studio multianalitico finalizzato alla caratterizzazione archeometrica di frammenti ceramici del sito archeologico di Khirbet al-Batrawy, Giordania, datati tra il 3000 e il 2000 a.C. con lo scopo di definirne la provenienza, le tecnologie di produzione e la relativa evoluzione tecnologica nel tempo. L’obiettivo principale è stato quello di identificare e caratterizzare dal punto di vista mineralogico-petrografico e composizionale i manufatti ceramici rinvenuti ed i materiali utilizzati nella loro produzione. Tali informazioni risultano indispensabili per uno studio approfondito sull’insieme di influenze e contatti che le popolazioni del Levante possono aver subito nel corso dei secoli. Ci si è proposto, inoltre, di contribuire a definire con maggior dettaglio il livello tecnologico raggiunto: eventuali azioni di selezione della materia prima e tipologia di rivestimento, massima temperatura e controllo delle condizioni redox durante la cottura. A questo scopo sono stati analizzati i frammenti provenienti da quattro differenti contesti stratigrafici datati tra il 3000 e il 2000 a.C. e rappresentativi delle diverse produzioni ceramiche rinvenute nel sito: ceramica comune, ceramica dipinta, ceramica lucidata, ceramica da trasposto, ceramica da cucina, la cosiddetta ceramica metallica ed una produzione specializzata caratteristica del Levante definita Khirbet Kerak Ware. I campioni ceramici sono stati caratterizzati mediante analisi macroscopiche, micro-Raman e Spettroscopia Infrarossa (FTIR) per identificare gli inclusi, le decorazioni superficiali dei frammenti e per caratterizzare la matrice. I campioni ceramici sono stati successivamente analizzati mediante microscopia ottica in sezione sottile per definire gruppi petrografici omogenei in termini di microstruttura, massa di fondo e compo-sizione degli inclusi. Analisi micromorfologiche sono state effettuate mediante SEM-EDS per definire la struttura della pasta di fondo, la natura degli inclusi e il grado di vetrificazione della matrice. Parte dei campioni è stata analizzata mediante XRD per definire la composizione mineralogica ed identificare la possibile presenza di fasi di neoformazione originatesi in seguito alla cottura. La composizione chimica delle ceramiche è stata determinata mediante ICP-MS e i risultati sono stati elaborati applicando l’analisi statistica multivariata con lo scopo di distinguere se le ceramiche fossero prodotte localmente o se vi fossero elementi che potessero permettere di ipotizzare un’importazione su scala regionale. Sulla base dei risultati dell’analisi minero-petrografica è stato possibile identificare dodici fabrics caratterizzate da inclusi di dimensione grossolana disposti nella matrice secondo una distribuzione unimodale; ciò suggerisce la mancanza di qualsiasi intervento o processo di purificazione della materia prima durante le fasi di preparazione dell’impasto ceramico. I risultati delle indagini minero-petrografiche supportano l’ipotesi di un approvvigionamento locale delle materie prime. In particolare, la presenza di inclusi di feldspato alcalino, zircone, apatite e barite è da correlare al contributo delle rocce ignee e metamorfiche del basamento cristallino Pre-Cambriano. La presenza di frammenti di rocce basaltiche è da ascriversi agli estesi affioramenti di tali rocce in prossimità del sito archeologico. Pertanto, questi risultati suggeriscono che le ceramiche di Batrawy probabilmente furono prodotte localmente. Le medesime conclusioni possono essere dedotte anche per i frammenti di Khirbet Kerak Ware, un gruppo ceramico tipologicamente differente dalle altre produzioni del sito di Khirbet al-Batrawy caratterizzato da una superficie di rivestimento lucida di colore rosso/nero. Le analisi chimiche, e in particolare il trattamento statistico dei dati, mostrano che i frammenti ceramici appartengono ad un unico cluster, suggerendo l’impiego di materie prime composizionalmente simili, probabilmente estratte nelle medesime aree. La presenza di calcite primaria, illite, gehlenite e diopside permette di ipotizzare che il materiale di partenza fosse un mix composto prevalentemente da illite e carbonati, cotto a temperature inferiori a 950°C. Un leggero incremento nella temperature di cottura è stato osservato nelle ultime fasi della storia di Khirbet al-Batrawy, suggerendo una possibile evoluzione delle conoscenze del processo di cottura del materiale ceramico. Per quanto concerne l’evoluzione della produzione ceramica, non sono stati osservati significativi cambiamenti durante la lunga storia della città di Batrawy. Questi risultati supportano l’ipotesi che durante i mille anni di vita della città il background tecnologico di queste popolazioni non abbia subito variazioni significative. Tuttavia, la variabilità osservata nelle fabrics petrografiche suggerisce una certa evoluzione tecnologica nel corso del tempo. La correlazione tra fabrics e tipologia ceramica osservata nel primo periodo storico è indice della fase di start-up della produzione ceramica a Batrawy. La presenza di numerose fabrics petrografiche non direttamente correlabili ad una specifica tipologia ceramica nel secondo periodo testimonia una diffusa sperimentazione nella scelta dei materiali di partenza e delle procedure di lavorazione. Nelle ultime fasi storiche si osserva una sorta di standardizzazione degli impasti, testimoniata dal minor numero di fabrics identificate e dalla evidente correlazione tra fabrics e tipologia ceramica, ed un miglior controllo della fase di cottura. Questi segnali di lento miglioramento starebbero ad indicare anche una maggiore attenzione rivolta alla specializzazione di particolari classi ceramiche

Cooking traces on Copper Age pottery from central Italy: An integrated approach comprising use wear analysis, spectroscopic analysis and experimental archaeology

This contribution discusses the results of an integrated approach of use wear analysis, spectroscopic analysis and experimental archaeology, applied for the investigation of the actual use of selected ceramic vessels, taken from domestic Copper Age contexts in the modern Rome area. This study is based upon the consideration of a vessel as a tool, used during everyday life and thus reflecting human activities and social behaviours. To this end, the paper here presented proposes an interpretation of the actual use activities which led to the modification of prehistoric vessels. The methodology of this study integrates the traditional approach to ceramic use wear studies, based on experimental and ethnoarchaeological studies, with principles of tribology, along with the application of a dedicated experimental framework which enabled the development of a detailed collection of comparative use wear. Moreover, the application of spectroscopic analysis provided preliminary data related to the charred encrustations found inside the archaeological specimens. These data, when combined with use wear, palaeobotanical remains and archaeological preserved structures, aided interpretation of the archaeological ceramic vessels as cooking pots

Insights on the mortars of ancient roman aqueducts. Aqua Virgo and Aqueduct Y, Rome (Italy)

Despite the archaeological importance of Aqua Virgo, a Roman aqueduct built in 19 BC and still functioning nowadays, there is a lack of information about the mortars coming from the inner duct. This work aims to investigate the mortars from Aqua Virgo and Aqueduct Y, an unidentified aqueduct running under the first one in the La Rinascente area (between Via del Nazareno and Via dei Due Macelli, Rome, IT) through Optical Microscopy (OM), X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The aim is to understand which materials guarantee such longevity and differentiate between different intervention phases. Local natural materials with pozzolanic behaviour—in particular, Pozzolane Rosse—and ceramic fragments are widely employed, mixed or not, for the realisation of the hydraulic mortars under investigation, independently of the intervention phase. Of particular interest is the discovery of an amorphous binder composed of Si, Al, Ca, K and Mg in some samples characterised by the absence of calcite

An integrated approach based on archaeometry, use-wear analysis and experimental archaeology to investigate the function of a specific type of basin diffused in the Predynastic sites of lower Egypt (4th mill. BC)

This paper focuses on the functional analysis of a specific oval shaped basin diffused in Lower Egyptian Predynastic sites during the first half of the 4th millennium BC. These oval shallow ceramic basins are characterised by a flat and wide inner surface that is covered by a layer of small rock fragments pressed into the clay matrix. Several archeologists have interpreted them as grinding tools, but the limited number of samples unearthed thus far and their poor state of preservation made this interpretation uncertain. Here we present the results of a preliminary integrated study based on the combination of experimental archaeology and petrographic, use-wear and residue analyses carried out on two samples from the Predynastic site of Maadi. The use-wear analysis of the archaeological fragments highlighted traces of an intentional grinding and light pounding of oily substances, which is also partially supported by the organic residue investigation. These results were tested through experimental tests that confirmed these basins are most likely mortars. Establishing the actual functional activities performed in such a unique type of vessel is important not only for understanding the social behaviors of the Lower Egyptian Predynastic communities and the dynamics related to the diffusion of such basins, but it also provides a new methodological framework for Egyptian Predynastic studies

From Achille Bertelli onward: more than 100 years of research and production of dietary supplements based on natural molecules typical of the Mediterranean diet

Achille Bertelli was an aeronautics pioneer and an innovative entrepreneur of the pharmaceutical industry. After graduating in Chemistry in Italy, he moved to the United States of America where he opened a chemical-pharmaceutical laboratory in San Francisco in 1879, and later moved back to Italy where he opened a chemical and pharmaceutical industry in Milan (1886). The “A. Bertelli” pharmaceutical company developed the famous cough pills “Catramina Bertelli”, as well as new cosmetics and perfumes. Apart from his chemical experience, Achille Bertelli was a passionate aeronautics expert. He wrote many essays on this topic and devoted himself to aeronautical experiments by designing theapparatus “Autovol”, “Aerocurvo”, “Autovol no. 2”, “Autovolno. 3", which are considered the prototypes of the helicopter. Achille Bertelli was also the president of the Electric Company of Salò, which installed an electrical system that served the lighting in many cities on Lake Garda (Italy). Finally, Achille Bertelli also participated in the Italian revival after the First World War, especially by supporting the agricultural revival. Throughout his life, Achille Bertelli teamed with several famous people from all over Italy, such as Gabriele D’Annunzio, Cesare Lombroso and Cordero di Montezemolo. Today, Achille Bertelli’s interest for natural molecules, his ideas, and his entrepreneurial approach are carried forward by his descendant, Matteo Bertelli

Aqua Alexandrina and Fragole cistern. Characterization of mortars from Roman constructions, Rome (Italy)

Aqua Alexandrina is the last aqueduct built by ancient Romans for the city of Rome. At Giovanni Palatucci Park, the archaeological ruins run close to a pre-existent water system, Fragole cistern. This research aims at characterizing mortar samples from both constructions, to identify the materials used and infer about the technological level and the provenance of materials, using a multi-analytical approach. Combining the information obtained through the petrographic investigation of mortar thin sections at optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction on finely powdered samples and thermogravimetric analysis on the binder fraction, it was possible to attest the presence of both artificial and natural materials with pozzolanic behavior, which conferred hydraulicity to the mortars. The results show that materials are very similar in both constructions, confirming a well-established know-how in the production of hydraulic mortars by the Romans. The volcanic products used as aggregate are identified with two large pyroclastic-flow deposits erupted by the Colli Albani Volcanic District which extensively crop out in the area of Rome: Pozzolane Rosse and Pozzolanelle

A whiter shade of vase. Discovering the white colors of an ancient Apulian krater through XRPD and Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy and X-Ray Powder Diffraction were applied in order to characterize the materials used for the manufacturing of an ancient, decorated vase of Apulian manufacturing in 4th century B.C. In this case study, three small fragments from one vase were sampled from pictorial areas in black and white. X-Ray Diffraction on a powdered sample was applied to characterize the composition of ceramic: the analysis allowed the identification of quartz, plagioclase and diopside and consequent hypotheses about the production process. The pictorial decorations in black and white were analysed through Raman spectroscopy. While the pigment constituting the dark areas was identified as maghemite γ-Fe2O3, an iron oxide with spinel structure, which suggests a maghemization oxidative process, in the white decoration it was possible to individuate the presence of both anatase -an allotropic phase of titanium oxide- and α-alumina. The application of alumina as pigment results peculiar and it represents a new knowledge advancement, which is worth of further studies. The combination of anatase and alumina suggested hypotheses about the origin of the starting materials for the white decorations, with reference to the manufacturing period and area. This set of data resulted in new information about the Apulian vase production, enriching the knowledge about a less popular pottery typology and opening new perspectives about commercial and cultural exchanges