Fundamental Motor Skills of Children in Deprived Areas of England: A Focus on Age, Gender and Ethnicity

This study compared the mastery of fundamental motor skills (FMS) of males and females in early-childhood (four to five years, n = 170) and in middle-childhood (nine to ten years, n = 109) who attend schools in deprived and ethnically diverse areas of England. Process FMS (object control and locomotor skills) were observed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Sprint speed over 10 meters and jump distance assessments were conducted using light gates and tape measures. A gender (male vs. female) by year-group (early-childhood vs. middle-childhood) interaction was shown for the process and product-oriented FMS measurements. Middle-childhood males and females demonstrated significantly greater FMS mastery, as compared to early-childhood (p < 0.05). Furthermore, middle-childhood males demonstrated significantly greater mastery of total FMS, object control skills, and product-oriented assessments, in comparison to females (p < 0.05). Children of Black and White ethnic groups achieved significantly greater mastery of locomotor skills, compared to Asian children, though this did not differ by year-group (p < 0.05). The results suggest that FMS development in deprived and ethnically diverse areas in England varies between genders during middle-childhood and ethnicity. Thus, interventions addressing the lack of FMS mastery achievement, shown in middle-childhood girls and children from Asian ethnic backgrounds, may be pivotal. Further exploration of the role of ethnicity would provide greater clarity in approaching interventions to improve FMS

Prescribing Target Running Intensities for High-School Athletes: Can Forward and Backward Running Performance Be Autoregulated?

Target running intensities are prescribed to enhance sprint-running performance and progress injured athletes back into competition, yet is unknown whether running speed can be achieved using autoregulation. This study investigated the consistency of running intensities in adolescent athletes using autoregulation to self-select velocity. Thirty-four boys performed 20 m forward running (FR) and backward running (BR) trials at slow, moderate and fast intensities (40–55%, 60–75% and +90% maximum effort, respectively) on three occasions. Absolute and relative consistency was assessed using the coefficient of variation (CV) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Systematic changes in 10 and 20 m performance were identified between trials 1–2 for moderate and fast BR (p ≤ 0.01) and during moderate BR over 20 m across trials 2–3 (p ≤ 0.05). However, comparisons between trials 2–3 resulted in low typical percentage error (CV ≤ 4.3%) and very good to excellent relative consistency (ICC ≥ 0.87) for all running speeds and directions. Despite FR being significantly (p ≤ 0.01) faster than BR at slow (26%), moderate (28%) and fast intensities (26%), consistency was similar in both running directions and strongest at the fastest speeds. Following appropriate familiarization, youth athletes may use autoregulation to self-select prescribed FR and BR target running intensitie

Eccentric Resistance Training in Youth: Perspectives for Long-Term Athletic Development

The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the role of eccentric resistance training in youth and how this training modality can be utilized within long-term physical development. Current literature on responses to eccentric exercise in youth has demonstrated that potential concerns, such as fatigue and muscle damage, compared to adults are not supported. Considering the importance of resistance training for youth athletes and the benefits of eccentric training in enhancing strength, power, speed, and resistance to injury, its inclusion throughout youth may be warranted. In this review we provide a brief overview of the physiological responses to exercise in youth with specific reference to the different responses to eccentric resistance training between children, adolescents, and adults. Thereafter, we discuss the importance of ensuring that force absorption qualities are trained throughout youth and how these may be influenced by growth and maturation. In particular, we propose practical methods on how eccentric resistance training methods can be implemented in youth via the inclusion of efficient landing mechanics, eccentric hamstrings strengthening and flywheel inertia training. This article proposes that the use of eccentric resistance training in youth should be considered a necessity to help develop both physical qualities that underpin sporting performance, as well as reducing injury risk. However, as with any other training modality implemented within youth, careful consideration should be given in accordance with an individual's maturity status, training history and technical competency as well as being underpinned by current long-term physical development guidelines

Variable and changing trajectories in youth athlete development: further verification in advocating a long-term inclusive tracking approach.

Athlete development through adolescence can vary greatly because of maturational processes. For example, variation can be observed in anthropometric and fitness measures with later maturing individuals "catching up" their earlier maturing peers at later time points. This study examined a methodological issue concerning how best to assess anthropometric and fitness change (i.e., "across age categories" or "per year") relative to an age and skill-matched population (N = 1,172). Furthermore, it examined changes in anthropometric and fitness characteristics in 3 cases of youth rugby league players (aged 13-15) across a 2-year period. Findings identified the "per year" method as generating less deviated z-scores across anthropometric and fitness measures (e.g., mean change p < 0.001), suggesting less substantial change in case players relative to the population. When applied to additional players, z-score and radar graphs showed developmental variability and longitudinal change. The possibility of a "later maturing player" increasing anthropometric (e.g., height: player 4 = 3.3 cm; player 5 = 13.2 cm; and player 6 = 15.7 cm) and fitness (e.g., 30-m sprint: player 4 = -0.18 s, player 5 = -0.46 s, and player 6 = -0.59 s) characteristics compared with early maturing players was confirmed. Findings affirm the potential for variable and changing trajectories in adolescent athletes. Practical implications advocate a long-term inclusive tracking approach of athletes, the avoidance of (de)selection, and the reduction of a performance emphasis in adolescent stages of sport systems

The Influence of Maturity Status on Muscle Architecture in School-Aged Boys

Purpose: To determine the differences in muscle architecture of the lower limb in pre-peak height velocity (PHV), circa-PHV, and post-PHV boys. Method: Muscle architecture variables from both the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) and vastus lateralis (VL) were derived from ultrasonographic images in 126 school-aged boys. One-way analysis of variance using Bonferroni post hoc comparisons was employed to determine between-group differences, and effect sizes were calculated to establish the magnitude of these differences. Results: All muscle architecture variables showed significant small to large increases from pre-PHV to post-PHV, excluding GM fascicle length (d = 0.59–1.39; P  0.57; P < .05); however, only the VL muscle thickness and physiological thickness increased from circa-PHV to post-PHV (d = 0.68; P < .05). The post-PHV group also showed larger GM pennation angles than the circa-PHV group (d = 0.59; P < .05). Conclusion: The combined results showed that maturation is associated with changes in muscle morphology. These data quantify that the maturity-related changes in muscle architecture variables provide a reference to differentiate between training-induced adaptations versus changes associated with normal growth and maturation

Fitness, fatness and active school commuting among Liverpool schoolchildren

This study investigated differences in health outcomes between active and passive school commuters, and examined associations between parent perceptions of the neighborhood environment and active school commuting (ASC). One hundred-ninety-four children (107 girls), aged 9–10 years from ten primary schools in Liverpool, England, participated in this cross-sectional study. Measures of stature, body mass, waist circumference and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) were taken. School commute mode (active/passive) was self-reported and parents completed the neighborhood environment walkability scale for youth. Fifty-three percent of children commuted to school actively. Schoolchildren who lived in more deprived neighborhoods perceived by parents as being highly connected, unaesthetic and having mixed land-use were more likely to commute to school actively (p < 0.05). These children were at greatest risk of being obese and aerobically unfit(p < 0.01). Our results suggest that deprivation may explain the counterintuitive relationship between obesity, CRF and ASC in Liverpool schoolchildren. These findings encourage researchers and policy makers to be equally mindful of the social determinants of health when advocating behavioral and environmental health interventions. Further research exploring contextual factors to ASC, and examining the concurrent effect of ASC and diet on weight status by deprivation is needed

An individualized longitudinal approach to monitoring the dynamics of growth and fitness development in adolescent athletes.

This study evaluated the development of anthropometric and fitness characteristics of 3 individual adolescent junior rugby league players and compared their characteristics with a cross-sectional population matched by age and skill level. Cross-sectional anthropometric and fitness assessments were conducted on 1,172 players selected to the Rugby Football League's talent development program (i.e., the Player Performance Pathway) between 2005 and 2008. Three players of differing relative age, maturational status, and playing position were measured and tracked once per year on 3 occasions (Under 13s, 14s, 15s age categories) and compared against the cross-sectional population. Results demonstrated that the later maturing players increased height (player 1 = 9.2%; player 2 = 7.8%) and a number of fitness characteristics (e.g., 60-m speed-player 1 = -14.9%; player 2 = -9.9%) more than the earlier maturing player (player 3-Height = 2.0%, 60-m sprint = -0.7%) over the 2-year period. The variation in the development of anthropometric and fitness characteristics between the 3 players highlights the importance of longitudinally monitoring individual characteristics during adolescence to assess the dynamic changes in growth, maturation, and fitness. Findings showcase the limitations of short-term performance assessments at one-off time points within annual-age categories, instead of advocating individual development and progression tracking without deselection. Coaches should consider using an individual approach, comparing data with population averages, to assist in the prescription of appropriate training and lifestyle interventions to aid the development of junior athletes

“Am I able? Is it worth it?” Adolescent girls’ motivational predispositions to school physical education: Associations with health-enhancing physical activity

The study purpose was to investigate predictive associations between adolescent girls&rsquo; motivational predispositions to physical education (PE) and habitual physical activity. Two hundred girls (age 13.1 &plusmn; 0.6 years) completed the Physical Education Predisposition Scale and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. ANCOVAs revealed that girls with the highest Perceived PE Worth and Perceived PE Ability scores were the most habitually active groups (p &lt; .0001). Significant predictors of physical activity identified by hierarchical regression were Perceived PE Ability and body mass index, which accounted for 17% and 3% of variance, respectively. As Perceived PE Ability was strongly associated with physical activity, the correlates of this construct should be further established to inform future school and PE-based interventions. <br /

The association between dog ownership or dog walking and fitness or weight status in childhood

BackgroundHealth benefits of dog walking are established in adults: dog owners are on average more physically active, and those walking their dogs regularly have lower weight status than those who do not. However, there has been little research on children.ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the association between dog ownership or dog walking and childhood fitness or weight status.MethodsA survey of pet ownership and involvement in dog walking was combined with fitness and weight status measurements of 1021 9 to 10-year-old children in the Liverpool SportsLinx study.ResultsWe found little evidence to support that children who live with, or walk with, dogs are any fitter or less likely to be obese than those who do not.ConclusionsThis is an important finding, as it suggests that the activity that children currently do with dogs is not sufficient enough to impact weight status or fitness