Évolution des chromosomes sexuels chez les plantes : développements méthodologiques et analyses de données NGS de Silènes

In many organisms, sexes are determined by sex chromosomes. However, studies have been greatly limited by the paucity of sex chromosome sequences. Indeed, sequencing and assembling sex chromosomes are very challenging due to the large quantity of repetitive DNA that these chromosomes comprise. In this PhD, a probabilistic method was developed to infer sex-linked genes from RNA-seq data of a family (parents and progeny of each sex). The method, called SEX-DETector, was tested on simulated and real data and should performwell on a wide variety of sex chomosome systems. This new method was applied to Silene latifolia, a dioecious plant with XY system, for which partial sequence data on sex chromosomes are available (some of which obtained during this PhD by BAC sequencing), SEX-DETector returned ∼1300 sex-linked genes. In S. latifolia, Y genes are less expressed than their X counterparts. Dosage compensation (a mechanism that corrects for reduced dosage due to Y degeneration in males) was previously tested in S. latifolia, but different studies returned conflicting results. The analysis of the new set of sex-linked genes confirmed the existence of dosage compensation in S. latifolia, which seems to be achieved by the hyperexpression of the maternal X chromosome in males. An imprinting mechanism might underlie dosage compensation in that species. The RNAseq datawere also used to study the evolution of differential expression among sexes in S. latifolia, and revealed that in this species most changes have affected the female sex. The implications of our results for the evolution of dioecy and sex chromosomes in plants are discussedMalgré leur importance dans le déterminisme du sexe chez de nombreux organismes, les chromosomes sexuels ont été étudiés chez quelques espèces seulement du fait du manque de séquences disponibles. En effet, le séquençage et l'assemblage des chromosomes sexuels est rendu très difficile par leurs abondantes séquences répétées. Durant cette thèse, une méthode probabiliste a été développée pour inférer les gènes liés au sexe à partir de données RNA-seq chez une famille. Des tests de cette méthode appelée SEX-DETector sur des données réelles et simulées suggèrent qu'elle fonctionnera sur une grande variété de systèmes. La méthode a inféré ∼1300 gènes liés au sexe chez Silene latifolia, une plante dioïque qui possède des chromosomes sexuels XY pour lesquels quelques données de séquence sont disponibles (dont certaines obtenues lors de cette thèse par séquençage de BACs). Les gènes du Y sont moins exprimés que ceux du X chez S. latifolia, mais le statut de la compensation de dosage (un mécanisme qui corrige la sous-expression des gènes liés au sexe chez les males) est encore controversé. L'analyse des nouveaux gènes liés au sexe inférés par SEX-DETector a permis de confirmer la compensation de dosage chez S. latifolia, qui est effectuée par la surexpression du X maternel, possiblement via un mécanisme epigénétique d'empreinte. Les données ont également été utilisées pour étudier l'évolution de l'expression biaisée pour le sexe chez S. latifolia et ont révélé que la majorité des changements de niveaux d'expression ont eu lieu chez les femelles. Les implications de nos résultats concernant l'évolution de la dioécie et des chromosomes sexuels sont discuté

Cross-Species Analysis of Genic GC(3) Content and DNA Methylation Patterns

The GC content in the third codon position (GC3) exhibits a unimodal distribution in many plant and animal genomes. Interestingly, grasses and homeotherm vertebrates exhibit a unique bimodal distribution. High GC3 was previously found to be associated with variable expression, higher frequency of upstream TATA boxes, and an increase of GC3 from 5′ to 3′. Moreover, GC3-rich genes are predominant in certain gene classes and are enriched in CpG dinucleotides that are potential targets for methylation. Based on the GC3 bimodal distribution we hypothesize that GC3 has a regulatory role involving methylation and gene expression. To test that hypothesis, we selected diverse taxa (rice, thale cress, bee, and human) that varied in the modality of their GC3 distribution and tested the association between GC3, DNA methylation, and gene expression. We examine the relationship between cytosine methylation levels and GC3, gene expression, genome signature, gene length, and other gene compositional features. We find a strong negative correlation (Pearson’s correlation coefficient r = −0.67, P value < 0.0001) between GC3 and genic CpG methylation. The comparison between 5′-3′ gradients of CG3-skew and genic methylation for the taxa in the study suggests interplay between gene-body methylation and transcription-coupled cytosine deamination effect. Compositional features are correlated with methylation levels of genes in rice, thale cress, human, bee, and fruit fly (which acts as an unmethylated control). These patterns allow us to generate evolutionary hypotheses about the relationships between GC3 and methylation and how these affect expression patterns. Specifically, we propose that the opposite effects of methylation and compositional gradients along coding regions of GC3-poor and GC3-rich genes are the products of several competing processes

Gene Body Methylation in Plants: Mechanisms, Functions, and Important Implications for Understanding Evolutionary Processes.

Gene body methylation (gbM) is an epigenetic mark where gene exons are methylated in the CG context only, as opposed to CHG and CHH contexts (where H stands for A, C, or T). CG methylation is transmitted transgenerationally in plants, opening the possibility that gbM may be shaped by adaptation. This presupposes, however, that gbM has a function that affects phenotype, which has been a topic of debate in the literature. Here, we review our current knowledge of gbM in plants. We start by presenting the well-elucidated mechanisms of plant gbM establishment and maintenance. We then review more controversial topics: the evolution of gbM and the potential selective pressures that act on it. Finally, we discuss the potential functions of gbM that may affect organismal phenotypes: gene expression stabilization and upregulation, inhibition of aberrant transcription (reverse and internal), prevention of aberrant intron retention, and protection against TE insertions. To bolster the review of these topics, we include novel analyses to assess the effect of gbM on transcripts. Overall, a growing body of literature finds that gbM correlates with levels and patterns of gene expression. It is not clear, however, if this is a causal relationship. Altogether, functional work suggests that the effects of gbM, if any, must be relatively small, but there is nonetheless evidence that it is shaped by natural selection. We conclude by discussing the potential adaptive character of gbM and its implications for an updated view of the mechanisms of adaptation in plants

Epigenetics drive the evolution of sex chromosomes in animals and plants

We review how epigenetics affect sex chromosome evolution in animals and plants. In a few species, sex is determined epigenetically through the action of Y-encoded small RNAs. Epigenetics is also responsible for changing the sex of individuals through time, even in species that carry sex chromosomes, and could favour species adaptation through breeding system plasticity. The Y chromosome accumulates repeats that become epigenetically silenced which leads to an epigenetic conflict with the expression of Y genes and could accelerate Y degeneration. Y heterochromatin can be lost through ageing, which activates transposable elements and lowers male longevity. Y chromosome degeneration has led to the evolution of meiotic sex chromosome inactivation in eutherians (placentals) and marsupials, and dosage compensation mechanisms in animals and plants. X-inactivation convergently evolved in eutherians and marsupials via two independently evolved non-coding RNAs. In Drosophila, male X upregulation by the male specific lethal (MSL) complex can spread to neo-X chromosomes through the transposition of transposable elements that carry an MSL-binding motif. We discuss similarities and possible differences between plants and animals and suggest future directions for this dynamic field of research. This article is part of the theme issue ‘How does epigenetics influence the course of evolution?’info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

New methods for inferring the distribution of fitness effects for INDELs and SNPs

Small insertions and deletions (INDELs; ≤50bp) are the most common type of variability after SNPs. However, compared to SNPs, we know little about the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) of new INDEL mutations and how prevalent adaptive INDEL substitutions are. Studying INDELs has been difficult partly because identifying ancestral states at these sites is error-prone and misidentification can lead to severely biased estimates of the strength of selection. To solve these problems, we develop new maximum likelihood methods, which use polymorphism data to simultaneously estimate the DFE, the mutation rate, and the misidentification rate. These methods are applicable to both INDELs and SNPs. Simulations show that they can provide highly accurate results. We applied the methods to an INDEL polymorphism dataset in Drosophila melanogaster. We found that the DFE for polymorphic INDELs in protein-coding regions is bimodal, with the variants being either nearly neutral or strongly deleterious. Based on the DFE, we estimated that 71.5% - 83.7% of the INDEL substitutions that took place along the D. melanogaster lineage were fixed by positive selection, which is comparable to the prevalence of adaptive substitutions at non-synonymous sites. The new methods have been implemented in the software package anavar

The quest for molecular regulation underlying unisexual flower development

The understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the making of a unisexual flower has been a long-standing quest in plant biology. Plants with male and female flowers can be divided mainly into two categories: dioecious and monoecious, and both sexual systems co-exist in nature in ca of 10% of the angiosperms. The establishment of male and female traits has been extensively described in a hermaphroditic flower and requires the interplay of networks, directly and indirectly related to the floral organ identity genes including hormonal regulators, transcription factors, microRNAs, and chromatin-modifying proteins. Recent transcriptomic studies have been uncovering the molecular processes underlying the establishment of unisexual flowers and there are many parallelisms between monoecious, dioecious, and hermaphroditic individuals. Here, we review the paper entitled "Comparative transcriptomic analysis of male and female flowers of monoecious Quercus suber" published in 2014 in the Frontiers of Plant Science (volume 5 |Article 599) and discussed it in the context of recent studies with other dioecious and monoecious plants that utilized high-throughput platforms to obtain transcriptomic profiles of male and female unisexual flowers. In some unisexual flowers, the developmental programs that control organ initiation fail and male or female organs do not form, whereas in other species, organ initiation and development occur but they abort or arrest during different species-specific stages of differentiation. Therefore, a direct comparison of the pathways responsible for the establishment of unisexual flowers in different species are likely to reveal conserved modules of gene regulatory hubs involved in stamen or carpel development, as well as differences that reflect the different stages of development in which male and/or female organ arrest or loss-of-function occurs.This work was funded by FEDER funds through the Operational CompetitivenessProgramme-COMPETE and by National Funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia under the project FCOMP—01—0124—FEDER—019461 (PTDC/AGRGPL/118508/2010) and the sub-project SOBREIRO/0019/2009 within the National Consortium (COEC—Cork Oak ESTs Consortium). RS was supported by funding from FCT with a PhD grant (ref. SFRH/BD/84365/2012). HS was supported by funding from FCT with a PhD grant (ref. SFRH/BD/111529/2015). MC was supported by funding from FCT with a grant SFRH/BSAB/113781/2015.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Slow evolution of sex-biased genes in the reproductive tissue of the dioecious plant Salix viminalis

The relative rate of evolution for sex-biased genes has often been used as a measure of the strength of sex-specific selection. In contrast to studies in a wide variety of animals, far less is known about the molecular evolution of sex-biased genes in plants, particularly in dioecious angiosperms. Here, we investigate the gene expression patterns and evolution of sex-biased genes in the dioecious plant Salix viminalis. We observe lower rates of sequence evolution for male-biased genes expressed in the reproductive tissue compared to unbiased and female-biased genes. These results could be partially explained by the lower codon usage bias for sex-biased genes leading to elevated rates of synonymous substitutions compared to unbiased genes. However, the stronger haploid selection in the reproductive tissue of plants, together with pollen competition, would also lead to higher levels of purifying selection acting to remove deleterious variation. Future work should focus on the differential evolution of haploid- and diploid-specific genes in order to understand the selective dynamics acting on these loci

Determinants of the efficacy of natural selection on coding and noncoding variability in two passerine species

Population genetic theory predicts that selection should be more effective when the effective population size (Ne) is larger, and that the efficacy of selection should correlate positively with recombination rate. Here, we analyzed the genomes of ten great tits and ten zebra finches. Nucleotide diversity at 4-fold degenerate sites indicates that zebra finches have a 2.83-fold larger Ne. We obtained clear evidence that purifying selection is more effective in zebra finches. The proportion of substitutions at 0-fold degenerate sites fixed by positive selection (α) is high in both species (great tit 48%; zebra finch 64%) and is significantly higher in zebra finches. When α was estimated on GC-conservative changes (i.e., between A and T and between G and C), the estimates reduced in both species (great tit 22%; zebra finch 53%). A theoretical model presented herein suggests that failing to control for the effects of GC-biased gene conversion (gBGC) is potentially a contributor to the overestimation of α, and that this effect cannot be alleviated by first fitting a demographic model to neutral variants. We present the first estimates in birds for α in the untranslated regions, and found evidence for substantial adaptive changes. Finally, although purifying selection is stronger in high-recombination regions, we obtained mixed evidence for α increasing with recombination rate, especially after accounting for gBGC. These results highlight that it is important to consider the potential confounding effects of gBGC when quantifying selection and that our understanding of what determines the efficacy of selection is incomplete

Chromosome‐scale assembly of the genome of Salix dunnii reveals a male‐heterogametic sex determination system on chromosome 7

International audienceAbstract Sex determination systems in plants can involve either female or male heterogamety (ZW or XY, respectively). Here we used Illumina short reads, Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) long reads and Hi‐C reads to assemble the first chromosome‐scale genome of a female willow tree ( Salix dunnii ), and to predict genes using transcriptome sequences and available databases. The final genome sequence of 328 Mb in total was assembled in 29 scaffolds, and includes 31,501 predicted genes. Analyses of short‐read sequence data that included female and male plants suggested a male heterogametic sex‐determining factor on chromosome 7, implying that, unlike the female heterogamety of most species in the genus Salix , male heterogamety evolved in the subgenus Salix . The S. dunnii sex‐linked region occupies about 3.21 Mb of chromosome 7 in females (representing its position in the X chromosome), probably within a pericentromeric region. Our data suggest that this region is enriched for transposable element insertions, and about one‐third of its 124 protein‐coding genes were gained via duplications from other genome regions. We detect purifying selection on the genes that were ancestrally present in the region, though some have been lost. Transcriptome data from female and male individuals show more male‐ than female‐biased genes in catkin and leaf tissues, and indicate enrichment for male‐biased genes in the pseudo‐autosomal regions. Our study provides valuable genomic resources for further studies of sex‐determining regions in the family Salicaceae, and sex chromosome evolution

Genomic imprinting mediates dosage compensation in a young plant XY system.: An article peer-reviewed and recommended by Peer Community In Evolutionary Biology (PCI Evol Biol)

This preprint has been reviewed and recommended by Peer Community In Evolutionary Biology (http://dx.doi.org/10.24072/pci.evolbiol.100044). Sex chromosomes have repeatedly evolved from a pair of autosomes. Consequently, X and Y chromosomes initially have similar gene content, but ongoing Y degeneration leads to reduced Y gene expression and eventual Y gene loss. The resulting imbalance in gene expression between Y genes and the rest of the genome is expected to reduce male fitness, especially when protein networks have components from both autosomes and sex chromosomes. A diverse set of dosage compensating mechanisms that alleviates these negative effects has been described in animals. However, the early steps in the evolution of dosage compensation remain unknown and dosage compensation is poorly understood in plants. Here we show a novel dosage compensation mechanism in the evolutionarily young XY sex determination system of the plant Silene latifolia. Genomic imprinting results in higher expression from the maternal X chromosome in both males and females. This compensates for reduced Y expression in males but results in X overexpression in females and may be detrimental. It could represent a transient early stage in the evolution of dosage compensation. Our finding has striking resemblance to the first stage proposed by Ohno for the evolution of X inactivation in mammals