Countering method bias in questionnaire-based user studies

Purpose - This paper seeks to discuss reliability problems associated with questionnaires, commonly employed in library and information science. It aims to focus on the effects of "common method variance" (CMV), which is a form of bias, and ways of countering these effects. Design/methodology/approach - The paper critically reviews the use of existing tools for demonstrating reliability in questionnaire-based studies. In particular, it focuses on Cronbach's alpha, "Harman's single factor test" and Lindell and Whitney's "marker variable" approach. The paper introduces an illustrative case study based on the work on metacognition and web searching. It goes on to make recommendations for researchers considering using a questionnaire-based approach. Findings - CMV is a problem affecting questionnaire-based studies in different disciplines across social and information science. Where questionnaire items are more abstract, CMV has been found to be more of a problem. The widely used Cronbach alpha measure, of the reliability of a questionnaire, may often be affected by CMV. Where method bias dominates the results, a high alpha score may do no more than indicate that the questionnaire consistently allows participants to accede to their biases. "Harman's single factor test" is criticised as lacking sufficient foundation, and it is concluded that it should not be used. The marker variable approach is a useful option but must be applied with caution. Practical implications - A number of practical implications for researchers are drawn. Questionnaire-based work investigating abstract constructs should be assumed to carry a high likelihood of CMV, and therefore should attempt to avoid it and demonstrate the degree of success in this regard. Otherwise, interpretation of the results should assume CMV. A number of approaches to assessing and isolating CMV are discussed. Originality/value - The paper draws attention to a problem that is arguably often overlooked in questionnaire-based studies, namely method bias. It discusses a number of approaches whereby it may be identified and controlled

The Symbolic Dynamics Of Multidimensional Tiling Systems

We prove a multidimensional version of the theorem that every shift of finite type has a power that can be realized as the same power of a tiling system. We also show that the set of entropies of tiling systems equals the set of entropies of shifts of finite type

Final evaluation of the saving gateway 2 pilot: main report

The Saving Gateway is a government initiative aimed at encouraging savings behaviour among people who do not usually save. Each pound placed into a Saving Gateway account is matched by the government at a certain rate and up to a monthly contribution limit. Matching provides a transparent and understandable incentive for eligible individuals to place funds in an account

A New Generation Gap? Some thoughts on the consequences of increasingly early ICT first contact

One possible consequence of ICT’s rapid rise will be a new ‘generation gap’ arising from differing perceptions of the learning technologies. The nature, causes and consequences of this gap are of interest to educational practitioners and policymakers. This paper uses data from an ongoing project together with a synopsis of research to describe the ICT-based generation gap that currently exists between students and their teachers and parents. It is argued that this gap may exist between students differing in age by as little as five years. Results from a related project exploring Networked Information and Communication Literacy Skills (NICLS), are used to introduce a discussion on the nature of any skills gap that must be addressed in the light of this generation gap

The 158 micron (CII) mapping of galaxies: Probing the atomic medium

Using the MPE/UCB Far-infrared Imaging Fabry-Perot Interferometer (FIFI) on the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO), we have made large scale maps of (CII) in the spiral galaxies NGC 6946, NGC 891, M83 and the peculiar elliptical Cen A, thus allowing for the first time, detailed studies of the spatial distribution of the FIR line emission in external galaxies. We find that the (CII) emission comes from a mixture of components of interstellar gas. The brightest emission is associated with the nuclear regions, a second component traces the spiral arms as seen in the nearly face on spiral galaxies NGC 6946 and M83 and the largest star forming/H2 regions contained within them, and another extended component of low brightness can be detected in all of the galaxies far from the nucleus, beyond the extent of CO emission

Gravitational Instantons, Confocal Quadrics and Separability of the Schr\"odinger and Hamilton-Jacobi equations

A hyperk\"ahler 4-metric with a triholomorphic SU(2) action gives rise to a family of confocal quadrics in Euclidean 3-space when cast in the canonical form of a hyperk\"ahler 4-metric metric with a triholomorphic circle action. Moreover, at least in the case of geodesics orthogonal to the U(1) fibres, both the covariant Schr\"odinger and the Hamilton-Jacobi equation is separable and the system integrable.Comment: 10 pages Late