Photodynamic therapy: A new light for the developing world

In one article, photodynamic therapy (PDT) was commended as the most suitable method for cancer therapy in the Developing World. PDT is cost effective and simple to use. Unlike chemotherapy, no special training is required for nurses, and no post treatment course in intensive care. No engineer, computerized dosimetry computations, or additional costs for isotope re-treatment are required, as in radiotherapy. There are no blood transfusions, or sophisticated operating theatres, as in surgery. Ironically, it is in the developing world that there appears to be very little awareness of and practice of PDT. Cancer sufferers are thus limited to chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery procedures that are relatively complex and costly, without distinctive advantage in cure or palliation. Is it possible that the low level of clinical practice in PDT in the developing world is related to the low level of articulation of what is admittedly a relatively new modality? However, this slow emergence of clinical practice in PDT when compared with advances in its developmental research was also observed in the developed world in the last two centuries or so. The purpose of this article was to advance the articulation of PDT, primarily among basic science researchers, clinicians and clinical scientists in the developing countries. It is also to advance the emerging new frontiers of the clinical applicability of the processes of photodynamic reactions in the fight against infectious disease epidemics, which are a more common occurrence in the developing world countries.Keywords: Photodynamic therapy, developing world, photosensitizer, bacterial infectionAfrican Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 12(23), pp. 3590-359

Heavy metals found at Umzimvubu River Estuary in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

The aim of this research was to detect and measure the concentration of heavy metals found in the water and silt of the Mzimvubu River at Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape. The water from this river estuary is used by the people and animals of that area and is suspected to cause several health conditions. The objective of the research was to undertake a pilot analysis for heavy metals. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) was selected as a tool to determine the concentration of the heavy metals present in the water and sediment samples. Water and sediment samples were collected at the river mouth and 5 kilometers upstream, near the R61 bridge, on either side of the river. The atomic absorption spectrophotometer used to measure the heavy metal concentrations was a Varian Spectra AA 100 equipped with a single slot burner. Measurements were carried out in triplicate. Throughout the study it was evident that there are heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc and nickel in the Umzimvubu River. The bio-accessibility of lead is a concern in view of the fact that it was found in high concentrations. Cadmium contamination was found to be in lower concentrations compared to the South African guidelines. Zinc and nickel were not severe since both were within the WHO and SADWAF guidelines. Therefore, it is concluded that the Umzimvubu River is an intimidation to many living organisms since it contains high concentrations of Lead, significantly higher than the South African guidelines. Severe damage in physical condition could be experienced by the human and animal populations in close proximity to the river. Further and more detailed studies are recommended, including bio-accessibility and bio-accumulation studies.Key words: Mzimvubu river, heavy metals, atomic absoption spectroscopy

Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background Understanding the health consequences associated with exposure to risk factors is necessary to inform public health policy and practice. To systematically quantify the contributions of risk factor exposures to specific health outcomes, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 aims to provide comprehensive estimates of exposure levels, relative health risks, and attributable burden of disease for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, from 1990 to 2021. Methods The GBD 2021 risk factor analysis used data from 54 561 total distinct sources to produce epidemiological estimates for 88 risk factors and their associated health outcomes for a total of 631 risk–outcome pairs. Pairs were included on the basis of data-driven determination of a risk–outcome association. Age-sex-location-year-specific estimates were generated at global, regional, and national levels. Our approach followed the comparative risk assessment framework predicated on a causal web of hierarchically organised, potentially combinative, modifiable risks. Relative risks (RRs) of a given outcome occurring as a function of risk factor exposure were estimated separately for each risk–outcome pair, and summary exposure values (SEVs), representing risk-weighted exposure prevalence, and theoretical minimum risk exposure levels (TMRELs) were estimated for each risk factor. These estimates were used to calculate the population attributable fraction (PAF; ie, the proportional change in health risk that would occur if exposure to a risk factor were reduced to the TMREL). The product of PAFs and disease burden associated with a given outcome, measured in disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), yielded measures of attributable burden (ie, the proportion of total disease burden attributable to a particular risk factor or combination of risk factors). Adjustments for mediation were applied to account for relationships involving risk factors that act indirectly on outcomes via intermediate risks. Attributable burden estimates were stratified by Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintile and presented as counts, age-standardised rates, and rankings. To complement estimates of RR and attributable burden, newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF) methods were applied to yield supplementary, conservative interpretations of risk–outcome associations based on the consistency of underlying evidence, accounting for unexplained heterogeneity between input data from different studies. Estimates reported represent the mean value across 500 draws from the estimate's distribution, with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) calculated as the 2·5th and 97·5th percentile values across the draws. Findings Among the specific risk factors analysed for this study, particulate matter air pollution was the leading contributor to the global disease burden in 2021, contributing 8·0% (95% UI 6·7–9·4) of total DALYs, followed by high systolic blood pressure (SBP; 7·8% [6·4–9·2]), smoking (5·7% [4·7–6·8]), low birthweight and short gestation (5·6% [4·8–6·3]), and high fasting plasma glucose (FPG; 5·4% [4·8–6·0]). For younger demographics (ie, those aged 0–4 years and 5–14 years), risks such as low birthweight and short gestation and unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing (WaSH) were among the leading risk factors, while for older age groups, metabolic risks such as high SBP, high body-mass index (BMI), high FPG, and high LDL cholesterol had a greater impact. From 2000 to 2021, there was an observable shift in global health challenges, marked by a decline in the number of all-age DALYs broadly attributable to behavioural risks (decrease of 20·7% [13·9–27·7]) and environmental and occupational risks (decrease of 22·0% [15·5–28·8]), coupled with a 49·4% (42·3–56·9) increase in DALYs attributable to metabolic risks, all reflecting ageing populations and changing lifestyles on a global scale. Age-standardised global DALY rates attributable to high BMI and high FPG rose considerably (15·7% [9·9–21·7] for high BMI and 7·9% [3·3–12·9] for high FPG) over this period, with exposure to these risks increasing annually at rates of 1·8% (1·6–1·9) for high BMI and 1·3% (1·1–1·5) for high FPG. By contrast, the global risk-attributable burden and exposure to many other risk factors declined, notably for risks such as child growth failure and unsafe water source, with age-standardised attributable DALYs decreasing by 71·5% (64·4–78·8) for child growth failure and 66·3% (60·2–72·0) for unsafe water source. We separated risk factors into three groups according to trajectory over time: those with a decreasing attributable burden, due largely to declining risk exposure (eg, diet high in trans-fat and household air pollution) but also to proportionally smaller child and youth populations (eg, child and maternal malnutrition); those for which the burden increased moderately in spite of declining risk exposure, due largely to population ageing (eg, smoking); and those for which the burden increased considerably due to both increasing risk exposure and population ageing (eg, ambient particulate matter air pollution, high BMI, high FPG, and high SBP). Interpretation Substantial progress has been made in reducing the global disease burden attributable to a range of risk factors, particularly those related to maternal and child health, WaSH, and household air pollution. Maintaining efforts to minimise the impact of these risk factors, especially in low SDI locations, is necessary to sustain progress. Successes in moderating the smoking-related burden by reducing risk exposure highlight the need to advance policies that reduce exposure to other leading risk factors such as ambient particulate matter air pollution and high SBP. Troubling increases in high FPG, high BMI, and other risk factors related to obesity and metabolic syndrome indicate an urgent need to identify and implement interventions

Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Understanding the health consequences associated with exposure to risk factors is necessary to inform public health policy and practice. To systematically quantify the contributions of risk factor exposures to specific health outcomes, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 aims to provide comprehensive estimates of exposure levels, relative health risks, and attributable burden of disease for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, from 1990 to 2021. Methods: The GBD 2021 risk factor analysis used data from 54 561 total distinct sources to produce epidemiological estimates for 88 risk factors and their associated health outcomes for a total of 631 risk–outcome pairs. Pairs were included on the basis of data-driven determination of a risk–outcome association. Age-sex-location-year-specific estimates were generated at global, regional, and national levels. Our approach followed the comparative risk assessment framework predicated on a causal web of hierarchically organised, potentially combinative, modifiable risks. Relative risks (RRs) of a given outcome occurring as a function of risk factor exposure were estimated separately for each risk–outcome pair, and summary exposure values (SEVs), representing risk-weighted exposure prevalence, and theoretical minimum risk exposure levels (TMRELs) were estimated for each risk factor. These estimates were used to calculate the population attributable fraction (PAF; ie, the proportional change in health risk that would occur if exposure to a risk factor were reduced to the TMREL). The product of PAFs and disease burden associated with a given outcome, measured in disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), yielded measures of attributable burden (ie, the proportion of total disease burden attributable to a particular risk factor or combination of risk factors). Adjustments for mediation were applied to account for relationships involving risk factors that act indirectly on outcomes via intermediate risks. Attributable burden estimates were stratified by Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintile and presented as counts, age-standardised rates, and rankings. To complement estimates of RR and attributable burden, newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF) methods were applied to yield supplementary, conservative interpretations of risk–outcome associations based on the consistency of underlying evidence, accounting for unexplained heterogeneity between input data from different studies. Estimates reported represent the mean value across 500 draws from the estimate's distribution, with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) calculated as the 2·5th and 97·5th percentile values across the draws. Findings: Among the specific risk factors analysed for this study, particulate matter air pollution was the leading contributor to the global disease burden in 2021, contributing 8·0% (95% UI 6·7–9·4) of total DALYs, followed by high systolic blood pressure (SBP; 7·8% [6·4–9·2]), smoking (5·7% [4·7–6·8]), low birthweight and short gestation (5·6% [4·8–6·3]), and high fasting plasma glucose (FPG; 5·4% [4·8–6·0]). For younger demographics (ie, those aged 0–4 years and 5–14 years), risks such as low birthweight and short gestation and unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing (WaSH) were among the leading risk factors, while for older age groups, metabolic risks such as high SBP, high body-mass index (BMI), high FPG, and high LDL cholesterol had a greater impact. From 2000 to 2021, there was an observable shift in global health challenges, marked by a decline in the number of all-age DALYs broadly attributable to behavioural risks (decrease of 20·7% [13·9–27·7]) and environmental and occupational risks (decrease of 22·0% [15·5–28·8]), coupled with a 49·4% (42·3–56·9) increase in DALYs attributable to metabolic risks, all reflecting ageing populations and changing lifestyles on a global scale. Age-standardised global DALY rates attributable to high BMI and high FPG rose considerably (15·7% [9·9–21·7] for high BMI and 7·9% [3·3–12·9] for high FPG) over this period, with exposure to these risks increasing annually at rates of 1·8% (1·6–1·9) for high BMI and 1·3% (1·1–1·5) for high FPG. By contrast, the global risk-attributable burden and exposure to many other risk factors declined, notably for risks such as child growth failure and unsafe water source, with age-standardised attributable DALYs decreasing by 71·5% (64·4–78·8) for child growth failure and 66·3% (60·2–72·0) for unsafe water source. We separated risk factors into three groups according to trajectory over time: those with a decreasing attributable burden, due largely to declining risk exposure (eg, diet high in trans-fat and household air pollution) but also to proportionally smaller child and youth populations (eg, child and maternal malnutrition); those for which the burden increased moderately in spite of declining risk exposure, due largely to population ageing (eg, smoking); and those for which the burden increased considerably due to both increasing risk exposure and population ageing (eg, ambient particulate matter air pollution, high BMI, high FPG, and high SBP). Interpretation: Substantial progress has been made in reducing the global disease burden attributable to a range of risk factors, particularly those related to maternal and child health, WaSH, and household air pollution. Maintaining efforts to minimise the impact of these risk factors, especially in low SDI locations, is necessary to sustain progress. Successes in moderating the smoking-related burden by reducing risk exposure highlight the need to advance policies that reduce exposure to other leading risk factors such as ambient particulate matter air pollution and high SBP. Troubling increases in high FPG, high BMI, and other risk factors related to obesity and metabolic syndrome indicate an urgent need to identify and implement interventions. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Flow system, physical properties and heavy metals concentration of groundwater: A case study of an area within a municipal landfill site

Groundwater within the Olusosun landfill site in Lagos Metropolis was evaluated. Previous research on quality parameters of groundwater in the area made use of equipment of low detection capacity for heavy metals concentrations in water. Also, subsurface flow and significant attenuation of leachate due to horizontal distance between wells and landfill site are yet to be technically elucidated. In the present investigation, priority was given to heavy metals as small quantities may build up in human systems to become a significant health hazard. Then analysis was done with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), while Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technique was used for spatial data analysis and management to illustrate localised flow of groundwater. Digital subsurface model of data from 20 drinking-water wells showed that flow directions are north-south, north-west and southeast. The two extremes of the pH for the groundwater are 4.04 and 8.05, indicating slightly acidic to weakly basic water. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are positively-strongly correlated with electrical conductivity (EC) in a line of fit TDS = 29.71 EC - 47.9. From the ICP-MS results, Fe concentrations at locations 1, 3 and 4, and Pb concentrations at locations 1, 5, 7, 8, 14 and 16 did not conform to international human-health benchmarks. Generally, the longer the horizontal distance between a well and the landfill site, the lesser its potential for groundwater contamination. This study better clarifies heavy metals concentrations in water, with GIS for satisfactorily display of positional and attribute for groundwater flow in the area

Physico-chemical properties of palm oil from different palm local factories in Nigeria

Physico-chemical properties of palm oil from different Nigerian oil palm local factories were determined at varying temperature. β-carotene contents were determined by spectrophotometric method using spectronic 21D spectrophotometer (Digital) at wavelength of 440 nm. Refractive index was determined by using Abbe refractometer while saponification value, acid value, free-fatty acid contents, ester value, iodine value and peroxide value were determined by titrimetric method. Results showed that palm oil from Ogbomoso had the highest β-carotene contents, while palm oil from Ile-Ife had the least β-carotene content, which was reduced progressively as the experimental temperature increased

Antibacterial effectiveness of Tetradenia riparia extract, a plant traditionally used in the Eastern Cape Province to treat diseases of the respiratory system

The antibacterial properties of Tetradenia riparia, the most frequently used plant by the traditional healer for the treatment of chest and cough related infections was reported in this study. The plant was investigated to evaluate claims made by the users as a remedy for chest and cough related infections. Ten bacterial strains (five gram-positive and five gram-negative) were used for the antibacterial assays. All the extracts showed some activity against the bacteria tested at concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 10.0 mg/ml, with the exception of dichloromethane extract which did not inhibit any of the microorganisms used. The antibacterial properties of the plant extracts were more visible with the gram-positive bacteria while gram-negative bacteria showed more resistance to the treatments especially at low concentration. The resistance of gram-negative bacteria has been attributed to the composition of their cell walls

Physico-chemical properties of palm oil from different palm local factories in Nigeria

Physico-chemical properties of palm oil from different Nigerian oil palm local factories were determined at varying temperature. β-carotene contents were determined by spectrophotometric method using spectronic 21D spectrophotometer (Digital) at wavelength of 440 nm. Refractive index was determined by using Abbe refractometer while saponification value, acid value, free-fatty acid contents, ester value, iodine value and peroxide value were determined by titrimetric method. Results showed that palm oil from Ogbomoso had the highest β-carotene contents, while palm oil from Ile-Ife had the least β-carotene content, which was reduced progressively as the experimental temperature increased