Does global progress on sanitation really lag behind water? An analysis of global progress on community- and household-level access to safe water and sanitation.

Safe drinking water and sanitation are important determinants of human health and wellbeing and have recently been declared human rights by the international community. Increased access to both were included in the Millennium Development Goals under a single dedicated target for 2015. This target was reached in 2010 for water but sanitation will fall short; however, there is an important difference in the benchmarks used for assessing global access. For drinking water the benchmark is community-level access whilst for sanitation it is household-level access, so a pit latrine shared between households does not count toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target. We estimated global progress for water and sanitation under two scenarios: with equivalent household- and community-level benchmarks. Our results demonstrate that the "sanitation deficit" is apparent only when household-level sanitation access is contrasted with community-level water access. When equivalent benchmarks are used for water and sanitation, the global deficit is as great for water as it is for sanitation, and sanitation progress in the MDG-period (1990-2015) outstrips that in water. As both drinking water and sanitation access yield greater benefits at the household-level than at the community-level, we conclude that any post-2015 goals should consider a household-level benchmark for both

Common Lawn and Garden Mushrooms of Central Oklahoma

Mushrooms are often abundant in lawns and gardens after periods of wetweather. This article presents photographs of some of the more commonmushrooms the author has encountered in Central Oklahoma over the past fifteen years

Two Case Studies: Evaluation of Balance following Unilateral Total Knee Arthroplasty

Balance is a critical part of daily activities and essential for independent function. The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a balance difference between subjects at twelve to sixteen weeks following unilateral knee arthroplasty and normal community dwelling controls. This study measures balance ability using five functional tests from the NeuroCom Balance Master® 6.1 system. Twelve subjects between the ages of 65 and 80 were tested. The two case study subjects with total knee replacements were between 12 and 16 weeks post-operatively. The control group consisted often healthy community dwelling adults. Results showed noticeable differences between the two groups in weight bearing and walking speed

Six simple guidelines for introducing new genera of fungi

We formulate five guidelines for introducing new genera, plus one recommendation how to publish the results of scientific research. We recommend that reviewers and editors adhere to these guidelines. We propose that the underlying research is solid, and that the results and the final solutions are properly discussed. The six criteria are: (1) all genera that are recognized should be monophyletic; (2) the coverage of the phylogenetic tree should be wide in number of species, geographic coverage, and type species of the genera under study; (3) the branching of the phylogenetic trees has to have sufficient statistical support; (4) different options for the translation of the phylogenetic tree into a formal classification should be discussed and the final decision justified; (5) the phylogenetic evidence should be based on more than one gene; and (6) all supporting evidence and background information should be included in the publication in which the new taxa are proposed, and this publication should be peer-reviewed

Health and household access to water and sanitation: a global analysis and systematic literature review

Millennium Development Goal target 7c sought to improve global access to safe water and sanitation, but different benchmarks were used to monitor "improved" access; the water benchmark is community-level access, and for sanitation it is household-level. Household-level sanitation is considered safer than shared sanitation, yet the relative health impacts of access to shared water sources and water supplies on premises have not been established. An analysis evaluated global progress towards water and sanitation targets under alternative benchmarks, and a systematic literature review was conducted to compare the relative health impacts of using shared water sources and at-house water supplies. Results indicate that water and sanitation have similar coverage deficits for household-level access and that individuals with at-house water supplies may experience lower odds of water-washed diseases and improved height outcomes. Promoting at-house water supplies through policy and development goals may realize potential health gains, particularly in underserved rural areas.Master of Science in Public Healt

Carrying water may be a major contributor to disability from musculoskeletal disorders in low income countries: a cross-sectional survey in South Africa, Ghana and Vietnam

Background: The Sustainable Development Goals include commitments to end poverty, and promote education for all, gender equality, the availability of water and decent work for all. An important constraint is the fact that each day, many millions of women and children, and much less frequently men, carry their household’s water home from off-plot sources. The burden of fetching water exacerbates gender inequality by keeping women out of education and paid employment. Despite speculation about the potential health impacts of fetching water, there is very little empirical evidence. We report the first large study of the health impacts of carrying water on women and children. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in South Africa, Ghana and Vietnam during 2012. It investigated water carrying methods and health status. Because areas of self-reported pain were correlated we undertook factor analysis of sites of reported pain, to interpret patterns of pain reporting. Regression analysis using Generalised Estimating Equations (GEE) investigated water carrying as a risk factor for general health and self-reported pain. Findings: People who previously carried water had increased relative risk of reporting pain in the hands (RR 3.62, 95%CI 1.34-9.75) and upper back (RR 2.27, 95%CI 1.17-4.40), as did people who currently carry water (RR hand pain 3.11, 95%CI 1.34-7.23; RR upper back pain 2.16, 95%CI 1.25-3.73). The factor analysis results indicate that factor 1, ‘axial compression’, which is correlated with pain in the head and upper back, chest/ribs, hands, feet and abdomen/stomach, is associated with currently (0.30, 95%CI 0.17-0.43) or previously (0.21, 95%CI 0.01-0.42) carrying water. Factor 2, ‘soft tissue strain’, which is correlated with pain in the neck, shoulders/arms, lower back and hips/pelvis or legs, is marginally negatively associated with currently (-0.18, 95%CI-0.32 - -0.04) carrying water. The factor ‘axial compression’ was more strongly associated with carrying water containers on the head. Conclusions: Participants who reported a history of current or past water carrying more frequently reported pain in locations most likely to be associated with sustained spinal axial compression in the cervical region. Given the fact that cervical spinal conditions are globally one of the more common causes of disability, our findings suggest that water carrying, especially by head loading is a major contributing factor in musculoskeletal disease burden in low income countries. Our findings support the proposed indicator for monitoring SDG6.1: “Percentage of population using safely managed drinking water services at home“ (our emphasis)

Does global progress on sanitation really lag behind water? An analysis of global progress on community- and household-level access to safe water and sanitation.

Safe drinking water and sanitation are important determinants of human health and wellbeing and have recently been declared human rights by the international community. Increased access to both were included in the Millennium Development Goals under a single dedicated target for 2015. This target was reached in 2010 for water but sanitation will fall short; however, there is an important difference in the benchmarks used for assessing global access. For drinking water the benchmark is community-level access whilst for sanitation it is household-level access, so a pit latrine shared between households does not count toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target. We estimated global progress for water and sanitation under two scenarios: with equivalent household- and community-level benchmarks. Our results demonstrate that the "sanitation deficit" is apparent only when household-level sanitation access is contrasted with community-level water access. When equivalent benchmarks are used for water and sanitation, the global deficit is as great for water as it is for sanitation, and sanitation progress in the MDG-period (1990-2015) outstrips that in water. As both drinking water and sanitation access yield greater benefits at the household-level than at the community-level, we conclude that any post-2015 goals should consider a household-level benchmark for both

On-plot drinking water supplies and health: a systematic review

Many studies have found that household access to water supplies near to or on the household plot can reduce the probability of diarrhea, trachoma, and other water-related diseases, and it is generally accepted that on-plot water supplies produce health benefits for households. However, the collective body of research literature has not been analyzed to weigh the evidence supporting this. A systematic literature review was conducted to investigate the impacts of on-plot water supplies on diarrhea, trachoma, child growth, and water-related diseases, to further examine the relationship between household health and distance to water source and to assess whether on-plot water supplies generate health gains for households. Studies provide evidence that households with on-plot water supplies experience fewer diarrheal and helminth infections and greater child height. Findings suggest that water-washed diseases are more strongly impacted by on-plot water access than waterborne diseases. Few studies analyzed the effects of on-plot water access on quantity of domestic water used, hygiene behavior, and use of multiple water sources, and the lack of evidence for these relationships reveals an important gap in current literature. The review findings indicate that on-plot water access is a useful health indicator and benchmark for the progressive realization of the Sustainable Development Goal target of universal safe water access as well as the human right to safe water

Domestic water quantity, service level and health

Sufficient quantities of water for household use, including for drinking, food preparation and hygiene, are needed to protect public health and for well-being and prosperity. This second edition reviews the evidence about the relationships between water quantity, water accessibility and health. The effects of water reliability, continuity and price on water use, are also covered. Updated guidance, including recommended targets, is provided on domestic water supply to ensure beneficial health outcomes