Communications and tracking expert systems study

The original objectives of the study consisted of five broad areas of investigation: criteria and issues for explanation of communication and tracking system anomaly detection, isolation, and recovery; data storage simplification issues for fault detection expert systems; data selection procedures for decision tree pruning and optimization to enhance the abstraction of pertinent information for clear explanation; criteria for establishing levels of explanation suited to needs; and analysis of expert system interaction and modularization. Progress was made in all areas, but to a lesser extent in the criteria for establishing levels of explanation suited to needs. Among the types of expert systems studied were those related to anomaly or fault detection, isolation, and recovery

A Dynamic Model of Differential Human Capital and Criminal Activity

This paper presents a new, dynamic economic model of criminal activity. Individuals are endowed with legal and criminal human capital. Potential incomes in legal and criminal sectors depend on the level of the relevant human capital, the rate of return, and random shocks. Both types of human capital can be enhanced by participating in the relevant sector. Legal human capital can also be enhanced through savings. Each type of human capital is subject to depreciation. Individuals maximize expected discounted lifetime utility, which depends on consumption. In this two-stage dynamic stochastic model, in each period the individual decides in which sector to participate (legal or illegal), and after the realization of income in that period, he decides on the optimal amount of consumption. A particular decision (e.g. participation in the criminal sector) has implications both for future decisions as well as the choices available to the individual in later periods. The model allows analyses of the effects of recessions, neighborhood effects, various imprisonment/rehabilitation scenarios, risk aversion, and time preferences on criminal behavior. It provides new insights, which are different from existing models, and it is able to explain the declining propensity of individuals to commit crimes over time.

Complex epithelial remodeling underlie the fusion event in early fetal development of the human penile urethra.

We recently described a two-step process of urethral plate canalization and urethral fold fusion to form the human penile urethra. Canalization ("opening zipper") opens the solid urethral plate into a groove, and fusion ("closing zipper") closes the urethral groove to form the penile urethra. We hypothesize that failure of canalization and/or fusion during human urethral formation can lead to hypospadias. Herein, we use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and analysis of transverse serial sections to better characterize development of the human fetal penile urethra as contrasted to the development of the human fetal clitoris. Eighteen 7-13 week human fetal external genitalia specimens were analyzed by SEM, and fifteen additional human fetal specimens were sectioned for histologic analysis. SEM images demonstrate canalization of the urethral/vestibular plate in the developing male and female external genitalia, respectively, followed by proximal to distal fusion of the urethral folds in males only. The fusion process during penile development occurs sequentially in multiple layers and through the interlacing of epidermal "cords". Complex epithelial organization is also noted at the site of active canalization. The demarcation between the epidermis of the shaft and the glans becomes distinct during development, and the epithelial tag at the distal tip of the penile and clitoral glans regresses as development progresses. In summary, SEM analysis of human fetal specimens supports the two-zipper hypothesis of formation of the penile urethra. The opening zipper progresses from proximal to distal along the shaft of the penis and clitoris into the glans in identical fashion in both sexes. The closing zipper mechanism is active only in males and is not a single process but rather a series of layered fusion events, uniquely different from the simple fusion of two epithelial surfaces as occurs in formation of the palate and neural tube

Androgen and estrogen receptor expression in the developing human penis and clitoris.

To better understand how the human fetal penis and clitoris grows and remodels, we undertook an investigation to define active areas of cellular proliferation and programmed cell death spatially and temporally during development of human fetal external genitalia from the indifferent stage (8 weeks) to 18 weeks of gestation. Fifty normal human fetal penile and clitoral specimens were examined using macroscopic imaging, scanning electron microscopy and immunohistochemical localization for the cellular proliferation and apoptotic markers, Ki67 and Caspase-3. A number of hot spots of cellular proliferation characterized by Ki67 localization are present in the penis and clitoris especially early in development, most notably in the corporal body, glans, remodeling glanular urethra, the urethral plate, the roof of the urethral groove and the fully formed penile urethra. The 12-fold increase in penile length over 10 weeks of growth from 8 to 18 weeks of gestation based on Ki67 labelling appears to be driven by cellular proliferation in the corporal body and glans. Throughout all ages in both the developing penis and clitoris Ki67 labeling was consistently elevated in the ventral epidermis and ventral mesenchyme relative to the dorsal counterparts. This finding is consistent with the intense morphogenetic activity/remodeling in the ventral half of the genital tubercle in both sexes involving formation of the urethral/vestibular plates, canalization of the urethral/vestibular plates and fusion of the urethral folds to form the penile urethra. Areas of reduced or absent Ki67 staining include the urethral fold epithelium that fuses to form the penile tubular urethra. In contrast, the urethral fold mesenchyme is positive for Ki67. Apoptosis was rarely noted in the developing penis and clitoris; the only area of minimal Caspase-3 localization was in the epithelium of the ventral epithelial glanular channel remodeling

Seasonal evolution of Aleutian low pressure systems: Implications for the North Pacific subpolar circulation

The seasonal change in the development of Aleutian low pressure systems from early fall to early winter is analyzed using a combination of meteorological reanalysis fields, satellite sea surface temperature (SST) data, and satellite wind data. The time period of the study is September–December 2002, although results are shown to be representative of the long-term climatology. Characteristics of the storms were documented as they progressed across the North Pacific, including their path, central pressure, deepening rate, and speed of translation. Clear patterns emerged. Storms tended to deepen in two distinct geographical locations—the Gulf of Alaska in early fall and the western North Pacific in late fall. In the Gulf of Alaska, a quasi-permanent “notch” in the SST distribution is argued to be of significance. The signature of the notch is imprinted in the atmosphere, resulting in a region of enhanced cyclonic potential vorticity in the lower troposphere that is conducive for storm development. Later in the season, as winter approaches and the Sea of Okhotsk becomes partially ice covered and cold, the air emanating from the Asian continent leads to enhanced baroclinicity in the region south of Kamchatka. This corresponds to enhanced storm cyclogenesis in that region. Consequently, there is a seasonal westward migration of the dominant lobe of the Aleutian low. The impact of the wind stress curl pattern resulting from these two regions of storm development on the oceanic circulation is investigated using historical hydrography. It is argued that the seasonal bimodal input of cyclonic vorticity from the wind may be partly responsible for the two distinct North Pacific subarctic gyres

Canalization of the Vestibular Plate in the Absence of Urethral Fusion Characterizes Development of the Human Clitoris: The Single Zipper Hypothesis.

PurposeWe characterized the early gestation development of the female external genitalia using optical projection tomography to visualize anatomical structures at high resolution.Materials and methodsFirst and early second trimester human female fetal external genitalia were collected with consent after voluntary termination. Specimens labeled with anti-E-Cadherin antibody underwent analysis with optical projection tomography. Histological sections were immunostained for androgen receptor, 5α-reductase, Ki67 for proliferation and Caspase 3 for apoptosis.ResultsThree-dimensional reconstructions demonstrated proximal to distal canalization of the epithelial vestibular plate and formation of a vestibular groove, which remained open. Ki67 was observed throughout with greatest density in the dorsal vestibular plate at the level of the opening groove. Staining for Caspase 3 was minimal in all sections. Androgen receptor staining was seen throughout the mesenchyme and in the apical epithelium of the dorsal vestibular groove. Throughout the epithelium and epidermis 5α-reductase staining was observed.ConclusionsEarly development of the external genitalia in the female is analogous to that in the male, demonstrating a similar opening zipper driving canalization of the vestibular plate with localized epithelial proliferation in the absence of significant apoptosis. Thus we hypothesize that the mechanism underlying the opening zipper must be androgen independent and the absence of androgen driven urethral fusion characterizes the normal development of the human clitoris