A meta-analysis of gender differences in leadership effectiveness

Despite years of evidence showing that men are typically considered to be more appropriate and effective in leadership positions than women, a recent debate has emerged over the potential existence of a female leadership advantage in certain contexts (Eagly & Carli, 2003a; Vecchio, 2003; Eagly & Carli, 2003b). This meta-analysis aims to contribute to this debate in the literature by quantitatively summarizing gender differences in leadership effectiveness using 99 independent samples from 95 studies. Results show that when all leadership contexts are considered together there is a non- significant gender difference in leadership effectiveness. Additionally, this study examines the influence of contextual moderators developed from role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002) and some competing theoretical frameworks. Overall, the findings support the core tenets of role congruity theory—that prejudice against female leaders can vary depending on a variety of features of the leadership context and characteristics of the perceivers of the leader’s effectiveness. However, some of the hypotheses proposed by role congruity theory were only partially supported. The results of this meta- analysis point to ways in which the theory can be updated and expanded by taking into account findings supported by other theories presented in the literature on gender and leadership. Finally, this meta-analysis provides important practical implications for reducing the barriers women may face throughout the leadership labyrinth as they pursue the most elite leadership positions

The role of perspective-taking in attenuating self-group distancing in women managers

Contrary to expectations about solidarity and sisterhood between women, women managers sometimes distance themselves from junior women in the workplace when facing identity threat, that is, the feeling that one's social identity—such as race or gender—is devalued or undermined. For example, women managers might distance themselves from lower status junior women by seeing themselves as more masculine and career committed than their junior women colleagues. To advance our understanding of how to combat self-group distancing, the present research proposed and tested whether taking the perspective of junior women would attenuate these ingroup-distancing tendencies in women managers. Findings from a field study and an experimental study indicated that women managers reported greater self-distancing from junior women (on masculine trait perceptions) compared to women employees. As predicted, this effect was attenuated for women managers with high levels of perspective-taking (Study 1) and for women who were experimentally led to take the perspective of junior women (Study 2). For ratings of career commitment and support for affirmative actions, we did not replicate the self-ingroup distancing effect reported in the literature. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed

Symbolic management and the glass cliff. Evidence from the boardroom careers of female and male directors

This paper uses archival board data to demonstrate that women who take positions as directors of UK companies have shorter tenures than their male counterparts. We show that female directors face a much higher risk of dismissal as they approach nine years of service on the board when their long service deprives them of the all-important classifi- cation as ‘independent’. At this point, their position on the board becomes precarious. Male directors do not suffer the same increase in boardroom exit. This gender-specific difference is shown to be clearly linked to the independence status. It is argued that these observations are consistent with the notion that female directors are being used in the symbolic management of corporate governance and that at nine years, when the cloak of independence disappears, women directors are then exposed to the biases that arise from role congruity issues

Respectful leadership:Reducing performance challenges posed by leader role incongruence and gender dissimilarity

We investigate how respectful leadership can help overcome the challenges for follower performance that female leaders face when working (especially with male) followers. First, based on role congruity theory, we illustrate the biases faced by female leaders. Second, based on research on gender (dis-)similarity, we propose that these biases should be particularly pronounced when working with a male follower. Finally, we propose that respectful leadership is most conducive to performance in female leader–male follower dyads compared with all other gender configurations. A multi-source field study (N = 214) provides partial support for our hypothesis. While our hypothesized effect was confirmed, respectful leadership seems to be generally effective for female leaders irrespective of follower gender, thus lending greater support in this context to the arguments of role congruity rather than gender dissimilarity

Do voters get it right? A test of the ascription-actuality trait theory of leadership with political elites

Are the traits preferred by voters also associated with success in political office? Drawing on the ascription-actuality trait theory of leadership the present study examines whether traits ascribed to politicians predict leadership outcomes differently to the actual traits they possess. We collected self-ratings of politicians’ personality (N=138) using the NEO-PI-R (actual traits) and observer ratings of politicians’ facial appearance (ascribed traits) to examine their relationship with (a) leadership emergence, measured using share of vote in election, and (b) in-role leadership effectiveness, rated anonymously by political and local authority colleagues. Facial appearance predicted leadership emergence but not effectiveness. Personality had a more nuanced relationship with leadership outcomes. Conscientiousness predicted effectiveness but not emergence, and Agreeableness revealed a trait paradox, positively predicting emergence and negatively predicting effectiveness. These findings suggest a need to understand the contested nature of political leadership and qualities required for different aspects of political roles