INDEPENDENT VALIDATION OF SENSOR MODELS IN THE COMMUNITY SENSOR MODEL PROGRAM

ABSTRACT As the military community continues its reliance on imagery from airborne sensors, the need to standardize sensor models for current and future sensors becomes paramount. In support of this requirement, the Community Sensor Model (CSM) program was established within the Department of Defense. Through this program, users of airborne data are provided a common interface to all essential photogrammetric functions while maintaining proprietary aspects of the sensor, through the use of shared libraries. To date, sensor model validation has ensured that all function calls return values for variables in the correct format, as specified by the Interface Control Document (ICD). The authors propose an enhanced method of validation through the use of photogrammetric processes that quantitatively evaluates a CSM's functionality on mission imagery. To support this, the validation team has developed the Generic Software Exploitation Tool (GSET) that stresses the sensor model's essential capabilities: accurate ground-to-image and image-to-ground transformations, sensor model adjustability to account for possible systematic errors, and full rigorous error propagation. One of the most critical GSET functions proposed by the authors is the photogrammetric resection. Once the sensor model is run through this test, the control and checkpoint residuals resulting from the resection will be quantitatively analyzed for modeling quality and the presence of remaining systematic errors. Results are then reported to the CSM developer as feedback and refinement of CSM development until its final delivery

Aerial photograph of campus, University of Maryland, 1957

An aerial photograph of the University of Maryland campus in College Park, 1957

Surveying: Principles and applications

Altitude is the distance between a position and a vertical reference surface. Distance might be measured in angular or length units. The position might be the point location of an object or a specified point along a vehicle track or satellite orbit. The surface might be one of many vertical datums, such as the center of the Earth, the surface of the ocean, the topographic surface of the Earth, the top of the built environment, or a constant barometric pressure surface. The precise distance between a surface and a position depends on the definition of the line between them. For example, the line might be perpendicular to a plane tangent to the reference surface, or it might extend from the position toward the center of the mass of the Earth. The terms altitude, elevation, and height are sometimes used interchangeably. In different contexts, these words take on different meanings, and the modifiers attached to them can sometimes clarify their usage. Elevation is often associated with the distance from a defined surface, such as the geoid, the theoretical equipotential gravity surface of the Earth, or a physically defined gravity surface model, such as a specific mean-sea-level datum, or with respect to the actual local-level plane as measured at the position. Height is sometimes reserved for the distance between a reference ellipsoid and a position or for the distance from the bottom to the top of an entity, such as a building or a mountain peak. The height of an aircraft might be the distance above the topographic surface of the Earth, while the height of a geodetic survey monument might be its vertical distance from a reference ellipsoid. This sentence appears in a text on surveying principles: "Therefore, the altitude at w hich the plane must fly is calculated by adding the elevation of the mean datum to the flying height." The altitude of the aircraft is above mean sea level, the flying height is the distance between the aircraft and the ground, and the ground (the mean datum) has an elevation with respect to mean sea level. Altitude is modified by words that further specify the meaning. Absolute altitude refers to the distance above the physical surface of the sea or land. Angular altitude is the vertical angle betw een some plane (such as local level) and a line from the observation point to an object such as a mark on a surveyor's rod or a star. Barometric altitude is the distance from one constant pressure surface (an isobaric surface) to another. Meridian altitude is the vertical angle to an object measured along a line of longitude

Habitat selection of the northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) during breeding season in Europe.

The ongoing population reduction of northern lapwings across Europe has raised serious conservation concerns. One of the primary drivers of this trend is the continuous transformation of their habitats. Land-use changes, particularly the expansion of agricultural fields and intensively managed pastures, have altered the species’ breeding environments, significantly affecting reproductive success. Eggs and chicks are especially vulnerable, facing increased risks due to habitat modifications. To investigate how landscape structure influences habitat selection, this study, conducted in collaboration with Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, analyzed tracking data from 13 northern lapwings alongside land use and land cover and elevation data. A spatial complexity assessment was performed using landscape metrics, which were then integrated into step-selection function (SSF) models to quantify habitat preferences. Findings from the SSF models indicate that, under the tested scenarios, habitats characterized by homogeneous resource diversity and spatial configuration increase the relative probability of habitat selection. These results provide key insights into how northern lapwings interact with their environment, offering a foundation for designing more effective conservation strategies tailored to their ecological needs