Primary Energy Factor for Electricity Mix: The Case of Slovenia

According to the European energy policy, the energy use of technical systems in buildings is given at the level of primary energy. This calculation requires knowledge of the primary energy conversion factors according to their source; however, there is currently no single European-wide recognized method for their determination. The aim of this study is to present and compare three methods for determining primary energy factors, namely the method of partial substitution, the physical energy method, and calculation according to EN 15603 standard. For the case study, the electricity factor for Slovenia was calculated according to the aforementioned methods. The results of this study showed that the methods differ in the evaluation of individual primary sources, which has a significant impact on the PEF value. We found that with the partial substitution method, we do not get representative results about the PEF. The method of physical energy defines the efficiency of production from renewable energy sources as 100%. The question arises if we can truly assume that the use of PE is equal to the actual production of electricity. In the third method, defined in the EN 15603 standard, which provides two PEFs, a certain measure of criticality of the assumed factors for the different sources of energy is used

Energy Efficiency of Hydronic Heating System in Retrofitted Buildings

Since central-based heating systems with radiators are among the most widely used heating systems in Europe, retrofit measures should include heat distribution and heat emission elements. One of the most cost-effective measures for heating systems is the replacement of the heat generator and circulating pump while preserving the distribution system and heat emitters. Reducing the heating demand results in an oversized existing heating system and thus enables a reduction in flow rates and supply temperatures. These steps should be taken to enhance the efficiency of the heating system without affecting the level of thermal comfort. This chapter focuses on the issue of energy efficiency in retrofitted buildings by optimizing the existing heating systems. The heating equipment is considered as one system, and it is not intended to improve only individual component efficiency. The optimization goal is to achieve a recommended or prescribed thermal comfort level with minimal energy use

Contractual litigation before the EU courts: the interplay between national and EU laws

Article 272 TFEU provides the General Court with the jurisdiction to hear contractual disputes between the EU and its counterparties. While largely ignored by academic literature, the litigation based on this provision nonetheless includes several interesting features, and notably the application by the EU Courts of the national law elected by the parties to govern their contractual relationships. Yet this adjudication based on national law takes place within the framework of the EU law that governs the jurisdiction of the EU Courts and the procedure before them. This contribution examines how national and EU laws interact in the course of this specific type of litigation

Selection of procedures for air conditioning audit and definition of the associated training package

In the current transformation of the air conditioning (AC) market, important efforts should be achieved to improve the energy efficiency of these systems all along their life cycle. To detect and define the performance degradation of these facilities, a global approach has to be developed and the complexity of the systems implies the creation of reliable and efficient audit procedures and methods. In the AUDITAC project, we will describe the features of the two levels audit methods; pre-audit (or walk-through) and (detailed) audit. In order to support the harmonisation of the implementation of the AC systems inspection, starting from the inspection schemes already on the market, we assessed their effectiveness and establish a link with the operation and maintenance practices. The decision for renovation will be developed in its aspects of energy savings and economic feasibility. In order to disseminate and involve easily the AC actors in the audit methods, we have developed a basic training package (TP) about auditing AC facilities. This tool has been created to prepare and introduce air conditioning actors (energy managers, facilities owners, technicians related to AC etc…) to the compulsory inspection and to disseminate the advantages and opportunities that the subsequent audit can give. The audit approach is globally explained in the TP from cooling production to distribution, operation and maintenance and finally control strategies. Quantitative indicators for best practices and improvement examples are showed to support decision of renovation. Basically, the TP has been designed for a public with an educational level of post-high school and can be used in different scenarios (students with HVAC class, inspection technicians, energy managers’ information etc…)

The Notice on the Notion of State Aid:Every light has its shadow

The paper analyses at the Notice on the notion of aid through the prism of its legal status and of the evolution of the case law on the notion of aid. It discusses the place of the notion within the hybrid framework of State aid regulation in Europe