Priorities for synthesis research in ecology and environmental science

Synthesis research in ecology and environmental science improves understanding, advances theory, identifies research priorities, and supports management strategies by linking data, ideas, and tools. Accelerating environmental challenges increases the need to focus synthesis science on the most pressing questions. To leverage input from the broader research community, we convened a virtual workshop with participants from many countries and disciplines to examine how and where synthesis can address key questions and themes in ecology and environmental science in the coming decade. Seven priority research topics emerged: (1) diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice (DEIJ), (2) human and natural systems, (3) actionable and use-inspired science, (4) scale, (5) generality, (6) complexity and resilience, and (7) predictability. Additionally, two issues regarding the general practice of synthesis emerged: the need for increased participant diversity and inclusive research practices; and increased and improved data flow, access, and skill-building. These topics and practices provide a strategic vision for future synthesis in ecology and environmental science

South American Anurans: Species Diversity and Description Trends Through Time and Space

Amphibians are especially diverse in the Neotropics and have also one of the highest rates of new species description among terrestrial vertebrates. The first systematic synthesis of South American anurans compiled a list of 1644 species, but there have been no update since the last 19 years. Here, we present a descriptive approach for temporal and spatial patterns of anuran species discoveries in South America, emphasizing trending changes in species description rates and number of researchers authoring a given species description. We recovered 2623 anuran species described in South America between 1758 and mid-2017 from 163 genera and 24 families. There is a high rate of species discovery across time, with at least 10 new descriptions per year in the period examined. Time span to reach multiples of 500 new species has dramatically decreased over time. For instance, it took more than two centuries for the description of 500 species since the first species (1750s), whereas it took about 10-12 years in order to add 500 new anuran species after 1990. Then, the curve of the cumulative anuran species description in South America is far from reaching an asymptote, yet it actually exhibits an exponential shape. Similar historical increase was recorded for the number of authors in papers over time, since descriptions are more collaborative in the last decades. Two major hotspots for new species discovery are depicted herein: (i) the Central and Northern Andes and the adjacent western Amazon (notedly in Ecuador, Peru, and Western Brazil) and (ii) the complex of Brazilian highlands encompassing the Atlantic and Brazilian plateau mountains. These trends are discussed according to singular historical events (including changes in research approaches) and possible explanations for the geographic pattern in species discovery.Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilCNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-4FAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-

Spatial Conservation Prioritization for the Anuran Fauna of South America

South America is the most biologically diverse continent on the planet, including anuran amphibians. However, the continent has been experiencing high levels of habitat degradation, and amphibians are considered the most endangered class of the vertebrate group globally. Therefore, the establishment of effective actions for the anuran protection in the continent is urgent. Here, we generate a spatial conservation prioritization of anurans in South America addressing different human-related and biological diversity metrics using the software MARXAN. We found that the anuran fauna of South America can be totally represented by the selection of similar to 19.53% of the total area of the continent. Contiguous selected areas are mainly located in the Tropical Andes and the Atlantic Forest coast. To a lesser extent, the selected areas can be also found in specific areas of Venezuela, the Brazilian Amazonian forest, and the temperate Chilean forests. In general, the contiguous areas represent forested areas within rough topographies of tropical countries and should be priority areas for anuran conservation in South America. Other areas within the tropical region, as well as in the southern temperate regions/countries, are less continuous and should involve more complex evaluations by decision-makers to foster reserve creation.University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

An Introduction to the Biogeography of South American Anurans

South America has undergone complex environmental and geological events that ultimately made it the most climatically and biodiverse continent on the planet, including anuran amphibians. Though biogeographical studies with anurans in South America have been continuously performed during the last decades, most of them focus on specific clades and/or regions. Moreover, no systematic compilation has been performed since the first synthesis of patterns of amphibian distribution, conducted by William E. Duellman by the end of the twentieth century. Here, we perform a systematic species survey of anurans in South America that allow us to revisit previously documented biogeographic patterns of species distribution (e.g., geographical patterns of species richness, species range size) and uncover novel biogeographic patterns, such as mapping anuran phylogenetic and functional diversity metrics across the continent. In summary, this book is made up of seven chapters spanning a wide range of topics that integrate herpetology, biogeography, ecology, and conservation biology. This chapter provides an overview of South American anurans and details the methodology used to generate the species list used in all subsequent chapters, as well as how different environmental variables were gathered and processed to be assessed as potential predictors of the biodiversity metrics explored through this book.Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

Biogeographic Patterns of South American Anurans Preface

Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Universidade Estadual de GoiasSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

Patterns of Species Richness, Range Size, and Their Environmental Correlates for South American Anurans

Species richness and range size gradients have been correlated with environmental conditions at broad spatial scales, yet these effects are commonly context-dependent for different geographical regions. Here we assembled range maps of South American anurans and used spatial and nonspatial regressions to assess the potential influences of environmental variables on the gradients of species richness and range sizes. Additionally, we evaluated the consistency of these environmental drivers separately for temperate/subtropical and tropical regions of South America. We found that vegetation structure, temperature, and energy-water balance were the strongest predictors of species richness at the continental scale; temperature, productivity, and elevation were the best predictors for range size. Explanatory power of predictors shifted across different regions of the continent: in the tropical, vegetation structure was the strongest correlate of species richness, and in the temperate/subtropical, temperature and energy-water balance were the most important predictors. As for range size, elevation and temperature were the best predictors in the tropical region, whereas temperature seasonality was the strongest predictor in the temperate/subtropical region. Our results support the idea that different environmental filters can vary according to the latitude, reinforcing the relevance of evaluating patterns at multiple spatial scales to understand environmental drivers of biodiversity.Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

Geographical Patterns of Functional Diversity of South American Anurans

A critical step in designing efficient spatial prioritization plans is to find the best network of sites that preserve multiple biodiversity facets. Conservation biogeography has increasingly been using functional diversity (FD) as an alternative metric to describe how trait diversity is distributed throughout space. FD can be promptly related to the function played by species in a community, better than taxonomic diversity. Here, we mapped multiple dimensions of functional diversity of South American anurans that describe functional richness (FRich), evenness (FEve), dispersion (FDis), and rarity (Frar) at the regional scale, as well as geographical restrictiveness and body size. FRich was higher in the Amazon basin, Guianas, Tropical Andes, and the central portion of the Atlantic Forest, whereas lower values appear in Patagonia and the Atacama Desert. FEve and FDis were homogeneously distributed throughout the continent, with lowest values in southern Patagonia, Pacific slope of the southern Tropical Andes, and Atacama Desert, while the highest values were found in the Atlantic slope of the southern Tropical Andes. Patterns of functional distinctiveness and uniqueness were similar and highlighted northwestern Argentina and areas with many endemic and functionally unique species. Frar at the regional scale highlighted the Andes, Patagonia, and the Atlantic Forest.Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

Biogeographic Regionalization of South American Anurans

The interest in recognizing spatial patterns of species co-distributions has long led biogeographers and macroecologists to classify the world in biogeographic regions. In this chapter, we aimed to identify regions with distinct species pools, thus representing different biogeographic regions with co-occurring species of anurans in South America. Using quantitative and clustering methods, we recognized six anuran biogeographic regions in South America: two regions are predominantly tropical (named as AMAZON and DIAGONAL-AF); two regions are associated to the Andes mountains (named as MID-ANDES and NORTH-/SOUTH-ANDES); and two regions are broadly located south of the Tropic of Capricorn (named as SUB-TROPICAL and TEMP-GRASS). Using regression and variation partitioning analyses, the six distinct biogeographic regions are mainly predicted by differences in climatic gradients among the biogeographic regions (e.g., clusters located in the different tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions). Yet, the combination of rough topography and habitat structure of major biomes was also a good predictor for other biogeographic regions (e.g., the recognition of the different Andean biogeographic regions having different major biomes, such as montane forests and grasslands).Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-

Spatial Distribution of Phylogenetic Diversity of South American Anurans

Understanding the spatial distributions of phylogenetic diversity is an opportunity to support policy-makers and designing conservation strategies in megadiverse regions. Here, we mapped the spatial distribution of Faith's phylogenetic diversity (PD) and phylogenetic endemism (PE) of amphibian species distributed across South America. Although we found areas of high species richness (SR) correlated with areas of high PD or PE, there are regions with much more PD/PE or much less PD/PE than expected given the SR. Using a phylogenetic approach, we found that the factors regulating amphibian biodiversity involve a complex interplay of evolutionary and biogeographical processes in different regions of South America. These results might help supporting conservation planning for this threatened vertebrate group.Fundação de Amparo de Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)University Research and Scientific Production Support Program of the Goias State University (PROBIP/UEG)Sao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFed Univ Sao Carlos UFScar, Sorocaba, SP, BrazilFed Univ Pampa UNIPAMPA, Sao Gabriel, RS, BrazilGoias State Univ UEG, Anapolis, Go, BrazilFed Univ Mato Grosso Sul UFMS, Campo Grande, MS, BrazilSao Paulo State Univ UNESP, Dept Biol Sci, Bauru, SP, BrazilFAPESP: 2011/18510-0FAPESP: 2013/50714-0FAPESP: 2016/13949-7CNPq: 2037/2014-9CNPq: 431012/2016-4CNPq: 308687/2016-17CNPq: 114613/2018-