Cybercities: Mediated Public Open Spaces - A Matter of Interaction and Interfaces.

In the near past, sources of information about public open spaces were: people, the place itself and historical archives. Accordingly, the information could be obtained by interviewing the visitors, by reading some poorly equipped signs on monuments or by research in libraries. Today, a new source appeared: The place itself covers its own information by the mean of the growing of the ICT (Information Communication Technologies). In addition, the information can be personalised in a way each people can access it individually. Ten years ago, a left-over newspaper on a park bench was a compact piece of information. Today, the newspaper resides on a smartphone in our pockets. In the future, the park bench will still be there, but dramatically changed to an IoT (Internet of things) object, bringing information to the people. Therefore, there is the need to re-think the park bench as an interface. A simple, fundamental point is: the quality of the interface rules the quality of the information. With a special focus on the latter, this chapter discusses how the classical model of the city is enhanced with the senseable city concept and how digital information influences, adopts, transforms and re-configures different objects in urban areas

Broad-Spectrum Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibition Curbs Inflammation and Liver Injury but Aggravates Experimental Liver Fibrosis in Mice

Background Liver fibrosis is characterized by excessive synthesis of extracellular matrix proteins, which prevails over their enzymatic degradation, primarily by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The effect of pharmacological MMP inhibition on fibrogenesis, however, is largely unexplored. Inflammation is considered a prerequisite and important co-contributor to fibrosis and is, in part, mediated by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-converting enzyme (TACE). We hypothesized that treatment with a broad-spectrum MMP and TACE-inhibitor (Marimastat) would ameliorate injury and inflammation, leading to decreased fibrogenesis during repeated hepatotoxin-induced liver injury.Methodology/Principal Findings Liver fibrosis was induced in mice by repeated carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) administration, during which the mice received either Marimastat or vehicle twice daily. A single dose of CCl4was administered to investigate acute liver injury in mice pretreated with Marimastat, mice deficient in Mmp9, or mice deficient in both TNF-α receptors. Liver injury was quantified by alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and confirmed by histology. Hepatic collagen was determined as hydroxyproline, and expression of fibrogenesis and fibrolysis-related transcripts was determined by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Marimastat-treated animals demonstrated significantly attenuated liver injury and inflammation but a 25% increase in collagen deposition. Transcripts related to fibrogenesis were significantly less upregulated compared to vehicle-treated animals, while MMP expression and activity analysis revealed efficient pharmacologic MMP-inhibition and decreased fibrolysis following Marimastat treatment. Marimastat pre-treatment significantly attenuated liver injury following acute CCl4-administration, whereas Mmp9 deficient animals demonstrated no protection. Mice deficient in both TNF-α receptors exhibited an 80% reduction of serum ALT, confirming the hepatoprotective effects of Marimastat via the TNF-signaling pathway.Conclusions/Significance Inhibition of MMP and TACE activity with Marimastat during chronic CCl4administration counterbalanced any beneficial anti-inflammatory effect, resulting in a positive balance of collagen deposition. Since effective inhibition of MMPs accelerates fibrosis progression, MMP inhibitors should be used with caution in patients with chronic liver diseases

Changes in evapotranspiration components following replacement of <i>Eucalyptus regnans</i> with <i>Acacia</i> species

Abstract Forest species composition may change following a disturbance. This change can affect long term water yield from forested catchments when the replaced and replacement species have different evapotranspiration rates. Following strip‐thinning experiments that removed 50% of the overstorey basal area in several Eucalyptus regnans water supply catchments in south eastern Australia, Acacia spp. (Acacia dealbata and Acacia melanoxylon) became the dominant overstorey species in most of the cut strips. More recently, low regeneration of E. regnans following wildfires in 2009 may result in mixed Acacia and E. regnans stands in some catchments. We compared transpiration of E. regnans and Acacia stands in the uncut and cut strips of a catchment that was strip‐thinned in early 1980s (Crotty Creek). We also compared transpiration and throughfall in a mixed E. regnans–A. dealbata regrowth stand 20 years after clear‐fell logging (Road 8). Sap flow was measured for 13 and 6 months at Crotty Creek and Road 8, respectively. In both studies, mean daily sap flow density of Acacia spp. was lower than of E. regnans. Estimated Leaf Area Index of E. regnans stands was slightly greater than that of Acacia spp. Stomatal conductance (gc), estimated by inverting the Penman–Monteith equation, differed between the species suggesting species‐level physiological differences with Acacia being more sensitive to vapour pressure deficit than E. regnans. Throughfall measurements at Road 8 indicated interception was slightly higher in A. dealbata but only enough to offset about 13% of the difference in transpiration. Replacement of E. regnans by Acacia dominated stands may, therefore, decrease catchment evapotranspiration and increase streamflow

Stand-level variation in evapotranspiration in non-water-limited eucalypt forests

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. To better understand water and energy cycles in forests over years to decades, measurements of spatial and long-term temporal variability in evapotranspiration (Ea) are needed. In mountainous terrain, plot-level measurements are important to achieving this. Forest inventory data including tree density and size measurements, often collected repeatedly over decades, sample the variability occurring within the geographic and topographic range of specific forest types. Using simple allometric relationships, tree stocking and size data can be used to estimate variables including sapwood area index (SAI), which may be strongly correlated with annual Ea. This study analysed plot-level variability in SAI and its relationship with overstorey and understorey transpiration, interception and evaporation over a 670 m elevation gradient, in non-water-limited, even-aged stands of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. to determine how well spatial variation in annual Ea from forests can be mapped using SAI. Over the 3 year study, mean sap velocity in five E. regnans stands was uncorrelated with overstorey sapwood area index (SAI) or elevation: annual transpiration was predicted well by SAI (R2 0.98). Overstorey and total annual interception were positively correlated with SAI (R2 0.90 and 0.75). Ea from the understorey was strongly correlated with vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and net radiation (Rn) measured just above the understorey, but relationships between understorey Ea and VPD and Rn differed between understorey types and understorey annual Ea was not correlated with SAI. Annual total Ea was also strongly correlated with SAI: the relationship being similar to two previous studies in the same region, despite differences in stand age and species. Thus, spatial variation in annual Ea can be reliably mapped using measurements of SAI

Change in fire frequency drives a shift in species composition in native Eucalyptus regnans forests: Implications for overstorey forest structure and transpiration

The world's most iconic forests are under threat from climate change. Climate-fire-vegetation feedback mechanisms are altering the usual successional trajectories of forests. Many obligate seeder forests across the globe are experiencing regeneration failures and subsequent alterations to their recovery trajectories. For example, the persistence of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. forests in southeast Australia is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate-driven increases in wildfire frequency. Shortening of the wildfire return interval from >100 years to < 20 years would inhibit or entirely stop regeneration of E. regnans, leading to replacement with understorey species such as Acacia dealbata Link. In this study, it is hypothesised that following such replacement, forest overstorey structure and transpiration will diverge. An experiment was designed to test this hypothesis by measuring and comparing overstorey transpiration and structural properties, including sapwood area and leaf area, between E. regnans and A. dealbata over a chronosequence (10-, 20-, 35- and 75-/80-year-old forests). We found that overstorey structure significantly diverged between the two forest types throughout the life cycle of A. dealbata after age 20. The study revealed strikingly different temporal patterns of water use, indicating a highly significant eco-hydrologic change as a result of this species replacement. Overall, the results provide a strong indication that after age 20, overstorey transpiration in Acacia-dominated forests is substantially lower than in the E. regnans forests they replace. This difference may lead to divergence in water yield from forested catchments where this species replacement is widespread

Capturing within catchment variation in evapotranspiration from montane forests using LiDAR canopy profiles with measured and modelled fluxes of water

Patterns in forest structure and function are tightly coupled to variation in energy and soil water gradients and disturbance history across the landscape. In eucalypt forests of southern Australia, changes in forest structure may account for the majority of variation in the evapotranspiration (Et) signal across a single forest type. In this study, the potential for using light detection and ranging (LiDAR)-derived canopy height profiles to predict key components of Et; transpiration (Esap), interception loss (Ei) and forest floor evapotranspiration (Efloor) was assessed in a mixed-species eucalypt forest in south-eastern Australia. Step-wise regression was used to select suitable LiDAR canopy height indices to predict stand structural attributes at all grid points within the catchment using field plot inventory data (r2 = 0.76–0.88). Similar rates of sap velocity were observed among trees at different landscape positions and during all seasons, irrespective of tree size and stature, enabling scaling of stand-level Esap. The revised Gash interception model was successfully used to model Et across the catchment using stand-level variation in canopy cover (derived from LiDAR). Similarly, Efloor was quantified spatially using variation in leaf area index and a two-bucket numeric model to interpolate field measurements. Our results show that variation in forest structure arising from changes in elevation in these south-facing catchments is a major determinant of forest water use and shows a threefold change in annual Et across the elevation gradient. The merging of detailed forest structural data and field-validated Et fluxes offers promise in advancing our understanding and prediction of key ecohydrologic processes in forested catchments

Responses of evapotranspiration at different topographic positions and catchment water balance following a pronounced drought in a mixed species eucalypt forest, Australia

Across southern Australia, a large proportion of urban water supply is sourced from mountainous catchments forested with native eucalypts. Mixed species eucalypt forest (MSEF) is the most common forest type in this region and occurs on relatively dry, fire prone sites, yet factors controlling forest water use and stream flow in response to topography, disturbance and drought are poorly understood. This study investigated the patterns and drivers of water balance over a 4 year period in a 1.36 km2, MSEF catchment by: quantifying spatial and temporal variability in evapotranspiration (Et) and its components; evaluating the abiotic, structural and physiological factors controlling water use across the catchment; and testing the effects of antecedent soil water conditions on water fluxes after drought. This was done using a 'bottom up' measurement approach that included stream flow and Et (sap flow, interception troughs and evaporation dome) and a simple empirical model of Er to track catchment response to drought. Spatial variability was considerable, with 40% lower rates of Er at an up slope plot compared to mid and bottom slope plots. Tree transpiration was the dominant flux annually and was correlated to reference Et (r2 = 0.35-0.80), implying strong limitation by atmospheric demand across the catchment. Annual E, totals were relatively consistent between years (841 +/- 34 mm) despite large variation in rainfall (463-1179 mm y-1). Annual stream flow represented a very small proportion of the water budget (t in the MSEF is sensitive to topography and demand limitation and suggests that water yield in this forest type may be particularly sensitive to future climatic change as shown by the sustained effect of drought on catchment water balance

A method for assessing the hydrological impact of afforestation using regional mean annual data and empirical rainfall-runoff curves

Using a case study from Australia, a method was developed to integrate regional-scale rainfall-runoff data with site-scale information to predict the likely magnitude of mean annual runoff reductions due to afforestation. It was hypothesised that large, long-term, mean annual rainfall-runoff datasets can be used to provide statistical limits around the variability of regional hydrology and that data from plantation conversion experiments can be used to identify quantiles within such data that correspond to pre- and post-plantation land-cover, enabling the transparent quantification of regional changes in runoff due to afforestation. Three simple empirical functions with flexible parameter structures and a documented precedence in the assessment of the hydrological impacts of land-cover change were used to perform quantile regression on the regional data. Structural deficiencies were identified in the two parameter versions of all three functions, requiring the use of well-posed, single parameter functions to form coherent quantile curve arrays. Plantation conversion data from a number of Australian sites were used to select regional pre- and post-conversion rainfall-runoff quantile curves for each empirical function which were in turn used to estimate proportional runoff reductions for regional Australia. USDA curves provided the closest agreement with results reported by a number of independent studies compared to a simple tanh function and Zhang curves. The USDA function had a more flexible structure in describing runoff from dry areas than either tanh or Zhang curves. Inflexibility in the Zhang curves was attributed to limitations in the model’s specification

Trends in evapotranspiration and streamflow following wildfire in resprouting eucalypt forests

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. The objective of this study was to estimate the recovery trajectory of evapotranspiration (Et) and streamflow (Q) in resprouting forested catchments following wildfire. Recovery dynamics were assessed in mixed species eucalypt forests in south-eastern Australia which recover from disturbance largely via vegetative resprouting, and to a lesser degree, via seedling recruitment. Changes in Et were evaluated in two ways. Firstly, we developed semi-empirical models of post-fire Et following moderate and high severity wildfire. These models were based on datasets of plot-scale Et, measured within five years post-fire, and published literature on post-fire changes in vegetation structure. Secondly, we analysed long-term Q records (25years) from a mixed species catchment, including a 1-5year period following a predominately moderate severity wildfire. We found that the overall length of recovery time for Et and Q following wildfire was 8-12years, which is much less than for eucalypt forests recovering via seedlings only. This emphasises the importance of functional responses to fire in forest ecosystems as a key driver of the hydrologic resilience of catchments, with resprouting forest types conferring relatively rapid recovery following disturbance. We also found that the recovery trajectory of post-fire Et was dependent on fire severity. Increased Et and consequent declines in Q occurred following moderate severity fire. In contrast, there was no evidence of increased Et following high severity fire. Based on patterns of long-term Q and rainfall observed in a small mixed species catchment, declines in Q due to increased Et following moderate severity wildfire were of similar magnitude to Q declines driven by a drought that coincided with the fire. We conclude that the coincidence of wildfire with drought exacerbates reductions in Q under moderate severity fire, resulting in greater Q declines. This is due to the enhanced rates of Et, primarily driven by regenerating seedlings and higher rates of transpiration from surviving trees