Addiction in Extreme Sports: An Exploration of Withdrawal States in Rock Climbers

Background and aims Extreme sports athletes are often labeled “adrenaline junkies” by the media, implying they are addicted to their sport. Research suggests during abstinence these athletes may experience withdrawal states characteristic of individuals with an addiction (Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993; Franken, Zijlstra, & Muris, 2006; Willig, 2008). Despite this notion, no research has directly explored withdrawal experiences of extreme sports athletes. Methods Using semi-structured interviews, we explored withdrawal experiences of high (n = 4) and average-ability (n = 4) male rock climbers during periods of abstinence. We investigated the psychological and behavioral aspects of withdrawal, including craving, anhedonia, and negative affect; and differences in the frequency and intensity of these states between groups. Results Deductive content analysis indicated support for each of the three categories of anhedonia, craving, and negative affect. Consistent with existing substance addiction literature, high-ability climbers recalled more frequent and intense craving states and negative affect during abstinence compared with average-ability climbers. No differences in anhedonic symptoms between high and average-ability participants were found. Conclusions Rock climbing athletes appear to experience withdrawal symptoms when abstinent from their sport comparable to individuals with substance and behavioral addictions. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed

Response to “Nature fix: Addiction to outdoor activities” R. C. Buckley’s commentary on Heirene, R. M., Shearer, D., Roderique-Davies, G., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2016). Addiction in extreme sports: An exploration of withdrawal states in rock climbers. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5, 332–341.

Buckley’s commentary on our study of rock climber’s withdrawal experiences raises a number of important questions surrounding the concept of extreme or adventure sports addiction. Drawing on the few available investigations of this topic, we respond to Buckley’s questions here, though emphasize the need for further studies of extreme sports addiction in order to provide more empirically informed answers

Development and initial validation of a rock climbing craving questionnaire (RCCQ)

Conceptual similarities have been identified between experiences of extreme sports athletes and those with drug and behavioural addictions. Evidence suggests rock climbers experience craving and other withdrawal-like states when abstinent from their sport. However, no studies have attempted to quantitatively measure the craving experienced by participants of any extreme sports. Such a measure could allow a greater understanding of the craving experienced by extreme sports athletes and a comparison of these across sports (e.g., surfing) and activities (e.g., drug-use). Therefore, using validated craving measures as a template, the aim of the two studies outlined here was to design and preliminarily validate a subjective multidimensional inventory that could be used to measure craving in the sports of rock-climbing and mountaineering (“RCCQ”). The aim of the first study was to investigate the factor structure of a preliminary measure of craving. Climbers (n = 407) completed the RCCQ. A 3-factor model explained 53.65% of the total variance in item scores. All 3 factors comprised 5 items each, which were conceptually labelled as “urge to climb” “negative reinforcement” and “positive reinforcement”. The aim of the second study was to validate the 15-item 3-factor RCCQ resulting from study one using confirmatory factor analysis. Climbers (n = 254) completed the questionnaire under a climbing-related cue condition or a cue-neutral condition. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed a good model fit and that all individual parameter estimates were significant and standard errors were within reasonable limits once item 13 was removed from Factor 1. Study one supports the multi-dimensional nature of rock climbing craving and shows parallels with substance-related craving in reflecting intention and positive (desire) and negative (withdrawal) reinforcement. Study two confirms this factor structure and gives initial validation to the measure with evidence that these factors are sensitive to cue exposure. Given the preliminary nature of the data, any practical implications are tentative. However, if as shown here, craving for climbing (and potentially other extreme sports) is similar to that experienced by drug-users and addicts, there is the potential that climbing and other extreme sports could be used as a replacement therapy for drug users

Cocaethylene and suicidality: an exploratory systematic review

BackgroundThere is evidence that both cocaine and alcohol lead to an increased risk of suicide. However, cocaethylene (a metabolite created from their co-ingestion) and suicidality are underexamined, and there has yet to be a systematic review of the evidence of any relationship between cocaethylene and suicidality. This research aimed to systematically examine whether cocaethylene formation from the co-ingestion of cocaine and alcohol is an independent risk factor for suicide.MethodsStudies examining the co-ingestion of cocaine and alcohol and its association with suicide were included.ResultsA total of 7 papers were retained for the final review. The review highlights a significant gap in the current literature regarding cocaethylene’s role as an independent risk factor for suicide and self-harm behaviors. Although numerous studies have examined the individual effects of cocaine and alcohol on suicide risk, there remains a lack of focused research on the combined effects of these substances and the specific role of cocaethylene.ConclusionThis review highlights a critical gap in the understanding of cocaethylene’s role in suicidality. Given the increasing prevalence of polydrug use, especially the co-ingestion of cocaine and alcohol, there is an urgent need for more comprehensive research into cocaethylene’s pharmacological and behavioral effects

The Effects of Sleep Quality on Imagery Ability in Athletic Populations

Copyright © The Author(s) 2017. This study explored the relation between athletes’ sleep quality and imagery ability. A total of 201 athletes (39.3% female, 60.7% male; Mage = 23.28 years, SD = 6.00) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Simple regression analyses revealed that global sleep quality predicted affect imagery ability. Multiple regression analyses revealed that daytime dysfunction predicted global imagery ability as well as skill, strategy, affect, and mastery imagery ability dimensions. In addition, use of sleeping medication predicted global imagery ability, as well as goal and affect imagery ability dimensions. Results provide some support for Cumming and Williams’ revised applied model of deliberate imagery use, suggesting that individual factors influence the effectiveness of imagery use. Specifically, athletes who have no disruption to daily functioning due to sleep find it easier to image sport-related content.The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article

Development and validation of the IDENT-Pro: a brief tool for the early identification of gambling risk factors indicative of harm

Currently, few gambling screening tools classify risk factors as many focus on symptoms derived from the DSM-V classification for gambling disorder, making them generally ill-suited to early identification as part of a public health approach to harm prevention. Aim: To develop a screening tool to identify gamblers who sit low on the continuum of harm but exhibit significant gambling risk factors. Method: The tool (titled the IDENT-Pro) was developed and underwent a series of tests to examine its internal consistency, factor structure, cut-offs and predictive ability using the PGSI as a reference. Findings: The IDENT-Pro showed good performance across all tests. Specifically, it was found that the tool could identify lower levels of risk compared to tools such as the PGSI. Conclusion: the IDENT-Pro is a promising tool that could aid the delivery of meaningful harm prevention interventions due to its brevity, ease of use and ability to identify lower risk individuals. Further research is needed to support the IDENT-Pro’s initial validation and investigate its utility as a brief screening and intervention tool