Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings

Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC-MS, HT-GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context

Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings

Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC–MS, HT-GC–MS, and LC–MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.Results - LC–MS/MS screening for biomarkers of plant exudates and resins. - GC–MS and HT‑GC–MS analysis. Discussion Methods - Sampling of ancient mummification balms. - Materials. - Extraction and analysis

Metabolic profiling reveals first evidence of fumigating drug plant Peganum harmala in Iron Age Arabia

The utilization of medicinal and psychoactive plants in the past represents a pivotal intersection of culture, health, and biodiversity. While such plants in Arabia have been known from classical and medieval textual records, this study provides material evidence of the use of one such plant for fumigation already in the Iron Age. Through metabolic profiling of organic residues recovered from archaeological artefacts at the oasis of Qurayyah, Northwest Arabia, we identified the drug plant Peganum harmala. Renowned for its antibacterial, psychoactive and multiple therapeutic properties, its presence highlights the deliberate utilization of local pharmacopeia by ancient communities. This discovery represents not only the first evidence for its use in Iron Age Arabia, but also the most ancient, radiometrically dated material evidence of Peganum harmala being used for fumigation globally. Beyond their health benefits, these plants were also valued for their sensory and affective properties. Documenting, understanding and preserving these ancient knowledge systems enriches our understanding of ancient traditions while safeguarding the region’s intangible cultural heritage.Results HPLC–MS/MS Discussion Methods Sampling Materials Extraction and analysi

Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings

Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC–MS, HT-GC–MS, and LC–MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology (2

Genetic insights into the social organization of Neanderthals

Genomic analyses of Neanderthals have previously provided insights into their population history and relationship to modern humans1–8, but the social organization of Neanderthal communities remains poorly understood. Here we present genetic data for 13 Neanderthals from two Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia: 11 from Chagyrskaya Cave9,10 and 2 from Okladnikov Cave11—making this one of the largest genetic studies of a Neanderthal population to date. We used hybridization capture to obtain genome-wide nuclear data, as well as mitochondrial and Y-chromosome sequences. Some Chagyrskaya individuals were closely related, including a father–daughter pair and a pair of second-degree relatives, indicating that at least some of the individuals lived at the same time. Up to one-third of these individuals’ genomes had long segments of homozygosity, suggesting that the Chagyrskaya Neanderthals were part of a small community. In addition, the Y-chromosome diversity is an order of magnitude lower than the mitochondrial diversity, a pattern that we found is best explained by female migration between communities. Thus, the genetic data presented here provide a detailed documentation of the social organization of an isolated Neanderthal community at the easternmost extent of their known range

Preparative HPLC separation of underivatized amino acids for isotopic analysis

Single-compound analysis of stable or radioactive isotopes has found application in a number of fields ranging from archaeology to forensics. Often, the most difficult part of these analyses is the development of a method for isolating the compound(s) of interest, which can derive from a wide range of sample types including the hair, nails, and bone. Here we describe three complementary preparative HPLC techniques suitable for separating and isolating amino acids from bone collagen and hair keratin. Using preparative reversed-phase, ion-pair, or mixed-mode chromatography in aqueous carbon-free mobile phases, or those from which carbon can easily be removed, underivatized single amino acids can be isolated and further analyzed using mass spectrometric techniques.</p

Preparative HPLC separation of underivatized amino acids for isotopic analysis

Single-compound analysis of stable or radioactive isotopes has found application in a number of fields ranging from archaeology to forensics. Often, the most difficult part of these analyses is the development of a method for isolating the compound(s) of interest, which can derive from a wide range of sample types including the hair, nails, and bone. Here we describe three complementary preparative HPLC techniques suitable for separating and isolating amino acids from bone collagen and hair keratin. Using preparative reversed-phase, ion-pair, or mixed-mode chromatography in aqueous carbon-free mobile phases, or those from which carbon can easily be removed, underivatized single amino acids can be isolated and further analyzed using mass spectrometric techniques

Assessing the efficiency of supercritical fluid extraction for the decontamination of archaeological bones prior to radiocarbon dating

Bone is one of the main sample types used for building chronologies in archaeology. It is also used in other research areas such as palaeodiet and palaeoenvironmental studies. However, for results to be accurate, samples must be free of exogenous carbon. Contamination can originate from a wide range of sources in the post-depositional environment but may also occur during excavation and post excavation activities (i.e. with the application of conservation materials) or during laboratory handling. Efficient procedures to remove contamination are therefore crucial prior to radiocarbon or stable isotope measurements. This work describes the development of an innovative sample pretreatment for bones, based on using supercritical CO2, which shows unique solvation properties. The effectiveness of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) to remove conservation materials was compared with that obtained when applying a routine extraction based on the use of organic solvents (methanol, acetone and chloroform). The chemical composition of the bone samples before and after the two pre-treatments was then investigated using analytical pyrolysis-based techniques: EGA-MS (Evolved Gas Analysis - Mass Spectrometry) and Py-GC/MS (Pyrolysis - Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry). Collagen samples extracted from the same bone, prepared with the two cleaning protocols, were also radiocarbon dated by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS). The results of this study show that SFE is an efficient alternative method because it was as effective as the established treatment protocol. It removes contaminants such as conservation materials from bone samples with a minimum of handling and can be used routinely in radiocarbon dating laboratories. This work also demonstrates that analytical pyrolysis is not only a very efficient method to identify contaminants in bones but also to assess the effectiveness of the pretreatment prior to the measurement of the samples on the AMS

Les résines végétales de type copal et encens : caractérisation, exploitation et circuits commerciaux

Les résines végétales de type copal et encens : caractérisation, exploitation et circuits commerciau

TGMS analysis of archaeological bone from burials of the late Roman period

The use of thermogravimetric analysis-mass spectrometry (TGMS) to study the state of preservation of archaeological bones has been investigated. As part of a collaborative multi-analytical study, bones exhumed from graves of the late Roman period in France and Italy were examined. A decrease in organic matter for the archaeological bones compared to that for new bone was confirmed, demonstrating that diagenesis of aged bones can be detected using TGMS. Different amounts of collagen were determined for bones from different graves and could, for the majority of specimens, be correlated with the visually observed preservation states. © 2009 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary