Promoting learning through social cues in learning materials: Design approaches, theoretical explanations, empirical basis, and neglected aspects

Soziale Hinweisreize sind wesentliche Komponenten aller Arten von Lernmaterialien. Sie umfassen verbale, nonverbale sowie paraverbale Reize als auch wechselseitig aufeinander bezogene Reizfolgen. Obwohl soziale Hinweisreize in Lernmaterialien schon seit längerem untersucht werden, ist ihre systematische Erforschung noch jung. Sie umfasst primär kognitive, motivationale, affektive und soziale Prozesse, welche durch die Verwendung sozialer Hinweisreize in Lernmaterial ausgelöst oder beeinflusst werden. Ein Schwerpunkt der empirischen Forschung liegt dabei schon länger auf sozialen Prozessen. Von sozialen Reizen wird dabei angenommen, dass sie den Lernprozess positiv beeinflussen, u.a. indem sie bei den Lernenden den Eindruck sozialer Präsenz einer (Lehr-)Person stimulieren, was in der Folge zu mehr Lernmotivation, mehr Lernen auf Verständnis und letztendlich besseren Leistungen in Lerntests führt. In diesem Beitrag bieten wir eine Klassifikation der Vielfalt an sozialen Hinweisreizen in Lernmaterialien allgemein an, skizzieren ihre Wirkung über soziale Prozesse auf das Lernen, fassen einschlägige empirische Belege zusammen und diskutieren vernachlässigte Aspekte sozialer Hinweisreize.Social cues are an essential component of all types of learning material. They comprise verbal, non-verbal and para-verbal stimuli as well as mutually related sequences of stimuli. Although the investigation of social cues in learning materials has had a long history, systematic research on this topic is limited. The research has primarily included cognitive, motivational, affective and social processes that are triggered or influenced by the use of social cues in learning material. One prominent focus of the empirical research on social cues has been on social processes. Social cues are assumed to have a positive influence on the learning process, for example, by stimulating the impression of a person’s (teacher) social presence, which leads to increased motivation to learn, more learning to understand, and finally to better performance in learning tests. In this paper, we outline the variety of social cues in learning materials, outline their impact on learning via social processes, summarize the relevant empirical evidence, and discuss neglected aspects of social cues

Association between antenatal glucocorticoid exposure and the activity of the stress system, cognition, and behavior in 8‐ to 9‐year‐old children: A prospective observational study

Introduction Glucocorticoid (GC) ‐induced fetal programming of the activity of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPAA) and its associated cognitive and behavioral consequences in later life have been well characterized in several animal species. However, information on humans is scarce. In this study, we examined HPAA activity markers and associated outcomes at 8 to 9 years of age among children prenatally exposed to GC for suspected preterm birth. Our hypothesis was that antenatal exposure to the betamethasone (BM) is associated with exacerbation of HPAA activity in childhood. Material and methods Prospective observational study in 31 children whose mothers received single ( n = 19) or multiple ( n = 12) courses of BM for threatened preterm birth but born with normal weight appropriate for the gestational age (median 37+ 6 weeks of gestation) compared with 38 non‐exposed, age‐matched children. Primary end point was the activity of the HPAA in response to the Trier Social Stress Test. Secondary end points were changes in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity, cognitive performance (IQ), attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, and electrocortical activity (EEG). Results There was no statistically significant difference in HPAA activity markers between antenatal BM exposed and unexposed groups. ANS activity in BM‐exposed children shifted towards a higher parasympathetic tone reflected by a higher overall high‐frequency band power of heart rate variability. IQ scores were within normal limits for both groups; however, BM‐exposed children had lower IQ scores than the unexposed group. BM‐exposed group had marginally more ADHD core symptoms and increased electrocortical activity in the occipital brain region compared with controls. A monotonic dose–response relation between BM exposure and activity of the ANS and IQ was estimated in post‐hoc analyses. Conclusions Antenatal exposure to BM in the context of threatened preterm birth was not associated with changes in HPAA activity in childhood. However, BM exposure may be associated with changes in ANS activity. Antenatal GC prophylaxis is a valuable and often life‐saving therapy, but its prescription may warrant a well‐balanced risk–benefit assessment

Förderung des Lernens durch soziale Hinweisreize in Lernmaterialien

Soziale Hinweisreize sind wesentliche Komponenten aller Arten von Lernmaterialien. Sie umfassen verbale, nonverbale sowie paraverbale Reize als auch wechselseitig aufeinander bezogene Reizfolgen. Obwohl soziale Hinweisreize in Lernmaterialien schon seit längerem untersucht werden, ist ihre systematische Erforschung noch jung. Sie umfasst primär kognitive, motivationale, affektive und soziale Prozesse, welche durch die Verwendung sozialer Hinweisreize in Lernmaterial ausgelöst oder beeinflusst werden. Ein Schwerpunkt der empirischen Forschung liegt dabei schon länger auf sozialen Prozessen. Von sozialen Reizen wird dabei angenommen, dass sie den Lernprozess positiv beeinflussen, u.a. indem sie bei den Lernenden den Eindruck sozialer Präsenz einer (Lehr-)Person stimulieren, was in der Folge zu mehr Lernmotivation, mehr Lernen auf Verständnis und letztendlich besseren Leistungen in Lerntests führt. In diesem Beitrag bieten wir eine Klassifikation der Vielfalt an sozialen Hinweisreizen in Lernmaterialien allgemein an, skizzieren ihre Wirkung über soziale Prozesse auf das Lernen, fassen einschlägige empirische Belege zusammen und diskutieren vernachlässigte Aspekte sozialer Hinweisreize.</jats:p

Impact of antenatal glucocorticoid exposure on the activity of the stress system, cognition and behavior in 8 to 9-year-old children: a clinical cohort study

Objective: To determine stress-sensitivity and neurodevelopmental outcome in 8- to 9-year-old children following antenatal exposure to glucocorticoid (GC) prophylaxis for neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Design: Clinical cohort study. Setting: University-based obstetric clinic in Central Germany. Population: 31 term or near-term born children whose mothers received single or multiple courses of betamethasone (BM) to induce fetal lung maturation in threatened preterm birth compared to 39 non-exposed children. Methods: Multi-system assessment of the individual stress response together with an analysis of cognitive, behavioral and electrocortical functioning. Main Outcome Measures: Activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA, primary outcome domain) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS, secondary outcome domain) including markers of heart rate variability (HRV). Additional endpoints were the cognitive performance (IQ) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) core symptoms. Results: HPAA activity was not affected by antenatal GC-exposure. ANS activity in GC-exposed children shifted towards a higher parasympathetic tone reflected by a higher overall high-frequency band power of HRV (1313 vs. 762 msec2/Hz, p=0.03). BM-exposed children had lower cognitive performance (IQ 96.9 vs. 108.0, p&lt;0.01) and a marginally higher ADHD score (FBB-ADHD scale 5.5 vs. 4.6 points, p=0.04). A monotonic dose-response relationship between GC-exposure and stress-induced activity of the ANS and IQ was estimated post-hoc. Conclusions: Antenatal exposure to supraphysiological concentrations of BM in the context of threatened preterm birth was associated with multidimensional changes in stress-sensitivity and neurodevelopment in later life. As these changes may be dose-dependent, antenatal GC prophylaxis should be used at the minimum effective dose after a careful risk-benefit assessment.</jats:p