No. 21: Cross-Border Raiding and Community Conflict in the Lesotho-South African Border Zone

Movement backwards and forwards across borders for work is often considered to be the primary form of unauthorized movement in Southern Africa. In southern Lesotho, a new and particularly dangerous form of two-way cross-border movement has become entrenched. This situation warrants the label “crisis”; a crisis which is devastating parts of the countryside in both Lesotho and the northern Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Media and official attention has focused on the extreme violence which accompanies cross-border stock raiding. This paper seeks to understand the social and economic roots and impacts of cross-border stock theft. Such an analysis is a vital first-step towards the resolution of the conflict since it shows not only why the violence occurs but who stands to benefit from its perpetuation. The analysis is also helpful to understanding the extent to which the existence of an international border is implicated in the cycle and counter-cycle of violence. This paper concludes with an assessment of official reaction, or inaction, on the crisis. The findings are based upon wide-ranging interviews with 147 respondents in 10 villages in southern Lesotho. A complementary study is now recommended on the South African side of the border. The stock theft epidemic is characterized by the following features: Although stock theft is not new to this border zone, it became more widespread, organized and violent in the 1990s. Some 71% of the Basotho stockowners reported having had stock stolen since 1990, many more than once. Over 40% of nonstockowners say they are without animals because of stock theft. Since 1990, 85% of stockowners in the border villages have lost animals to thieves as compared with 49% from non-border villages. Shepherds from border villages also report a higher rate of victimisation (83%) than those further removed from the border (50%). Most cattle and sheep are stolen from cattle posts where they are guarded only by shepherds. Stock is also taken from village kraals and, on occasion, whole villages have been attacked and all the stock driven off. Villagers in all ten villages rate stock theft as a serious problem. Stock thieves come from within Lesotho as well as across the border in South Africa. Basotho stock thieves also carry out raids in South Africa and vice-versa. Gun use is widespread, although South African raiders seem to have greater access to arms. Much of the theft appears to be coordinated by well-organised criminal gangs but reliable information on their composition and organization is difficult to access. Criminal networks in Lesotho and South Africa also cooperate to dispose of stolen animals in the lowlands of Lesotho and as far afield as Port Elizabeth, Durban and Welkom The upsurge in stock theft is clearly related to growing poverty in the region. On both sides of the border, mine retrenchments have hit hard, sending experienced miners home and denying young men access to wage employment. Not only has this exacerbated household and community poverty, but it has provided willing foot-soldiers for stock thieves. Stock raiding produces further impoverishment, insecurity and suspicion, fuelling the escalating cycle of theft and counter-theft. Though not itself in dispute or a source of conflict per se, the Lesotho-South African border plays an essential role in the organization and impact of stock theft. There are significant differences in vulnerability and impact between villages close to the border and those further inland. The international border leads to a distinctive pattern of stock theft. In the simplest scenario, raiders from one side steal from border villages on the other and vice-versa and drive the stock back over the border. The situation becomes more problematic when Basotho stock thieves use the border as a refuge, stealing from Basotho and driving the animals across the border into South Africa to sell or exchange with South African thieves. Cross-border counter-raids to retrieve lost stock and revenge attacks are also common on both sides of the border. South African victims then target Basotho border villages for revenge raids, resulting in great tension and friction between ordinary Basotho and South Africans. The only Lesotho village reporting harmonious cross-border relations borders a white South African farming area. However, white border farmers are not aloof from the conflict. Lesotho police and villagers are adamant that some white South African farmers are implicated in cross-border theft. Stock raiding has major negative impacts on households, communities and cross-border interaction. The impacts also extend to the national economy. In Qacha’s Nek and Quthing districts, production of wool and mohair has fallen significantly in the last 5 years. Livestock holdings have dropped and the numbers of stockless households has increased. Farmers are reluctant to invest in breeding cattle as households debate the merits of getting rid of their cattle. One prominent stock-owner recently lost M200,000 of stock. Stock theft has also had a deleterious effect on agriculture, reducing the availability of oxen for ploughing fields. No one is immune from small-scale and organized raiding. Stock theft, coupled with decreasing agricultural production and increasing unemployment, deepens poverty and desperation. At the household and community level, the research found the following: Nearly 90% of respondents state their household economies have been negatively affected by stock theft. A household’s entire wealth and livelihood can be wiped out in one attack. Escalating stock theft and related violence have profound social consequences, bringing fear and insecurity to ordinary people. People are abandoning their villages and migrating to town and to South Africa to look for work. Community relations have become fraught with tension and suspicion. Nearly half of all stockowners interviewed suspect specific individuals within their own village are involved in the theft of animals – acting either as informants or actual thieves. Invariably it is the poor who are fingered and stigmatised. Communal cooperation such as livestock loaning for ploughing and mafisa (sharing of products) is in steep decline, as are cultural activities and celebrations which involve the slaughter of animals. Cross-border cooperation, activities and initiatives have collapsed and there is considerable animosity and hatred between the communities on either side of the border. Even casual visiting and shopping have all but ceased. Prevention efforts have involved some cross-border cooperation between villages to apprehend thieves and return cattle but these efforts are sporadic and make little dent on the problem. They often also lead to vicious reprisals from stock-theft syndicates. Vigilantism is on the rise in the face of widespread perceptions that the police and the courts on both sides of the border are either ineffectual or corrupt. This paper examines the inadequacies of the policing of the crisis, highlighting the low rates of arrest and prosecution. The difficulties of geography and inadequate resources which hamper effective policing are highlighted. Only in areas where the army is stationed or soldiers patrol the border has there been any marked decrease in theft. The situation is bound to deteriorate further unless there is effective national-level attention and intervention. The low-level civil war in the nearby Tsolo district of South Africa in 1997 was fuelled by a potent mix of poverty, mine retrenchments and stock theft. This conflict could well pale in comparison with the volatile situation building in the southern Lesotho border zone. Here, the same combination of factors are compounded by ethnic and national difference, and the strategic manipulation of borders by stock thieves on both sides. Both governments need to recognize that this local crisis could escalate into a major conflagration and intervene to defuse the situation, calm tensions and work towards effective policing and a political solution. Within Lesotho, the passage of a new Stock Theft Act promises heavy penalties for the shadowy figures involved in organized raiding, provided they can be caught. The institution of a national stock register also seems a step in the right direction though its likely effectiveness is debated. Both the Lesotho and South African governments should acknowledge that a crisis situation exists and that this is a regional problem. Only when national governments, working together with local stakeholders, take the problem seriously and begin cooperating can workable initiatives to halt this devastating social and economic plague be implemented

Part I: Synthesis and Biological Evaluations of Potent Class L Selective Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Part II: Aqueous Complexes for Efficient Sizebased Separation of Americium from Curium Part III: Designing Strong Chiral Bronsted Acids and Their Application for Oxaxinanones Derivatization and the Aza-henry Reaction

PART I: SYNTHESIS AND BIOLOGICAL EVALUATIONS OF POTENT CLASS l SELECTIVE HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITORS Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have found a wide variety of medicinal uses and are most noted for their specific apoptotic action towards cancer cells1. Several hydroxamates and tetrapeptides HDACi have since been moved on to phase 1 and 2 clinical trials, with FK228 & SAHA having already been approved for treatment of advanced cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL). FK228 & SAHA are pan-HDACi which d compounds describes the unselective inhibition for any of the 11 Zn2+-dependent HDAC isoforms. Research in the past five years, has shifted towards developing selective HDACi instead of developing pan-HDACi since they have higher cytotoxicity in vitro and vivo. The research presented involves exploration of a new class of HDACi that resemble the natural product Thailandepsin A, (TDP-A) but still retains adequate HDAC inhibitory activity and antitumor activity while increasing the maximum tolerated dose levels (MTD). Part II: AQUEOUS COMPLEXES FOR EFFICIENT SIZE-BASED SEPARATION OF AMERICIUM FROM CURIUM Separation of the adjacent actinide (An) elements americium and curium (An = Am, or Cm) is important to concepts for advanced nuclear fuel cycles proposed to reduce the transuranic content of nuclear waste placed in geological repositories,2 but the similar chemistries of Am and Cm make this separation among the most difficult in the periodic table.2 The work presented in this section examines the design and synthesis of new aqueous ligands with complexation of the adjacent actinide ions americium(III) and curium(III). The ligand N,N′-bis[6-carboxy-2-ivpyridylm-ethyl]-1,7-diaza-18crown6 (H2bp18c6) and its derivatives in an aqueous solution were studied to quantify and characterize their americium/curium selectivity. Part III: DESIGNING STRONG CHIRAL BRONSTED ACIDS AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR OXAXINANONES Nature uses chiral Brønsted acids catalytically for numerous organic reactions. Organic chemists have until only very recently realized the importance of this unique class of catalyst. As a result, there are very few known chiral Brønsted acids used in traditional asymmetric organic reactions. In recent years, due to the tremendous need for new asymmetric organic reactions in the pharmaceutical and food industries, interest in strong chiral Brønsted acids has been steadily growing. Currently, there are only a few of these acids known that have been used successfully for organic reactions. The research presented here involves exploration of a new class of chiral Brønsted acids for organic reactions. In addition, this research focuses on the importance of strong acidity as well as asymmetry for aza-Henry reaction. Binaphthyl sulfur-containing acid systems, which are analagous to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), were found to be especially attractive. This dissertation reports on the use of an innovative application of these asymmetric chiral sulfonate/sulfate systems in conjunction with a strong Brønsted acid. These new catalytic systems were very successful for obtaining asymmetry in the aza-Henry reaction

The Impacts of Exercising with External Versus Internal Motives on College Students\u27 Mental Health

This study sets out to determine the impacts of exercising with different motives, specifically external appearance versus internal health, on college students\u27 mental health. The study will also analyze the mental health effects of following fitness-related influencers and content on social media on college-aged students, in addition to the differences in mental health among male and female students in relation to exercise motivators and social media consumption. A survey will be utilized to collect data from undergraduate college-aged students. The goal of this study is to better understand whether certain motives for exercising are healthier for college students\u27 mental health than others, despite the pre-existing notion that exercise is good for one\u27s mental health (Dale et al., 2014). The impact that social media has on particular motivating factors and mental health is also explored in an effort to inform students of the potential threats that particular motivating factors may have on their mental health, via the information source this age group gravitates toward most frequently. The results of this study suggest that participants claimed they were exercising more for health and enjoyment, but they were actually more aware of how their body appears to others as opposed to how it feels and functions. Using appearance as a motivator to exercise was found to be correlated with higher levels of psychological distress and using health and enjoyment as a motivator was found to be correlated with higher levels of positive emotions while exercising. Female participants were found to place a greater emphasis on their appearance and were found to be more likely to use that as a motivator to exercise than male participants. Consuming fitness-related content on social media had a slightly more positive impact on males than females. There are tremendous implications to the present research, including the potential negative physical health effects that the obsession and stress that can accompany trying to achieve a certain external appearance can cause. Socio-cultural expectations are also highlighted throughout the entirety of the study. There is much room for future research on this emerging topic

Gaszenie pożarów dawnego Gdańska na przykładzie porządków ogniowych z XVI w.

The article presents the content of the Gdańsk Fire Order (Fewers Ordnung) from 1539 together with its updates from 1565 and 1587. The document from 1539, not yet presented and discussed, is an intermediate link between the oldest direcons that poorly describe the problem of firefighting and separate and uniform from this year on, fire law. This study, although to a small extent, refers to the work of Tadeusz Maciejewski Ustawodawstwo przeciwpożarowe w dawnym Gdańsku (1454–1793), published in the magazine „Studia z Dziejów Państwa i Prawa Polskiego” w 2017 r.Artykuł przedstawia treść gdańskiego porządku ogniowego (Fewers Ordnung) z 1539 r. razem z jego aktualizacjami z lat 1565 i 1587. Dokument z 1539 r., dotychczas nie prezentowany i nie omawiany, jest ogniwem pośrednim między najstarszymi wilkierzami, skąpo opisującymi problematykę gaszenia pożarów, a odrębnymi i jednolitymi od tego roku przepisami przeciwpożarowymi. Niniejsze opracowanie, choć w niewielkim zakresie, nawiązuje do pracy Tadeusza Maciejewskiego Ustawodawstwo przeciwpożarowe w dawnym Gdańsku (1454–1793), opublikowanej w periodyku „Studia z Dziejów Państwa i Prawa Polskiego” w 2017 r

Porządek ogniowy z roku 1631 jako źródło prawnych przekazów na temat walki z pożarami w Szczecinie XVII stulecia

The work presents a document regulating fire protection (fire prevention and fire suppression) in the 17th century. It is the first presentation to contemporary readers. It discusses provisions concerning fire prevention, organization of fire extinguishing, equipping the city with fire tools, fire water supply and the actions of the city council after a fire.W artykule przedstawiono dokument regulujący obronę przed pożarami w Szczecinie XVII wieku; jest to pierwsza jego prezentacja przed czytelnikami. W analizowanym porządku ogniowym z 1631 roku omówione są postanowienia dotyczące zapobiegania pożarom, organizacji gaszenia pożarów, wyposażenia miasta w narzędzia ogniowe, przeciwpożarowego zaopatrzenia w wodę oraz działań rady miejskiej po pożarze

No. 21: Cross-Border Raiding and Community Conflict in the Lesotho-South African Border Zone

Movement backwards and forwards across borders for work is often considered to be the primary form of unauthorized movement in Southern Africa. In southern Lesotho, a new and particularly dangerous form of two-way cross-border movement has become entrenched. This situation warrants the label “crisis”; a crisis which is devastating parts of the countryside in both Lesotho and the northern Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Media and official attention has focused on the extreme violence which accompanies cross-border stock raiding. This paper seeks to understand the social and economic roots and impacts of cross-border stock theft. Such an analysis is a vital first-step towards the resolution of the conflict since it shows not only why the violence occurs but who stands to benefit from its perpetuation. The analysis is also helpful to understanding the extent to which the existence of an international border is implicated in the cycle and counter-cycle of violence. This paper concludes with an assessment of official reaction, or inaction, on the crisis. The findings are based upon wide-ranging interviews with 147 respondents in 10 villages in southern Lesotho. A complementary study is now recommended on the South African side of the border. The stock theft epidemic is characterized by the following features: Although stock theft is not new to this border zone, it became more widespread, organized and violent in the 1990s. Some 71% of the Basotho stockowners reported having had stock stolen since 1990, many more than once. Over 40% of nonstockowners say they are without animals because of stock theft. Since 1990, 85% of stockowners in the border villages have lost animals to thieves as compared with 49% from non-border villages. Shepherds from border villages also report a higher rate of victimisation (83%) than those further removed from the border (50%). Most cattle and sheep are stolen from cattle posts where they are guarded only by shepherds. Stock is also taken from village kraals and, on occasion, whole villages have been attacked and all the stock driven off. Villagers in all ten villages rate stock theft as a serious problem. Stock thieves come from within Lesotho as well as across the border in South Africa. Basotho stock thieves also carry out raids in South Africa and vice-versa. Gun use is widespread, although South African raiders seem to have greater access to arms. Much of the theft appears to be coordinated by well-organised criminal gangs but reliable information on their composition and organization is difficult to access. Criminal networks in Lesotho and South Africa also cooperate to dispose of stolen animals in the lowlands of Lesotho and as far afield as Port Elizabeth, Durban and Welkom The upsurge in stock theft is clearly related to growing poverty in the region. On both sides of the border, mine retrenchments have hit hard, sending experienced miners home and denying young men access to wage employment. Not only has this exacerbated household and community poverty, but it has provided willing foot-soldiers for stock thieves. Stock raiding produces further impoverishment, insecurity and suspicion, fuelling the escalating cycle of theft and counter-theft. Though not itself in dispute or a source of conflict per se, the Lesotho-South African border plays an essential role in the organization and impact of stock theft. There are significant differences in vulnerability and impact between villages close to the border and those further inland. The international border leads to a distinctive pattern of stock theft. In the simplest scenario, raiders from one side steal from border villages on the other and vice-versa and drive the stock back over the border. The situation becomes more problematic when Basotho stock thieves use the border as a refuge, stealing from Basotho and driving the animals across the border into South Africa to sell or exchange with South African thieves. Cross-border counter-raids to retrieve lost stock and revenge attacks are also common on both sides of the border. South African victims then target Basotho border villages for revenge raids, resulting in great tension and friction between ordinary Basotho and South Africans. The only Lesotho village reporting harmonious cross-border relations borders a white South African farming area. However, white border farmers are not aloof from the conflict. Lesotho police and villagers are adamant that some white South African farmers are implicated in cross-border theft. Stock raiding has major negative impacts on households, communities and cross-border interaction. The impacts also extend to the national economy. In Qacha’s Nek and Quthing districts, production of wool and mohair has fallen significantly in the last 5 years. Livestock holdings have dropped and the numbers of stockless households has increased. Farmers are reluctant to invest in breeding cattle as households debate the merits of getting rid of their cattle. One prominent stock-owner recently lost M200,000 of stock. Stock theft has also had a deleterious effect on agriculture, reducing the availability of oxen for ploughing fields. No one is immune from small-scale and organized raiding. Stock theft, coupled with decreasing agricultural production and increasing unemployment, deepens poverty and desperation. At the household and community level, the research found the following: Nearly 90% of respondents state their household economies have been negatively affected by stock theft. A household’s entire wealth and livelihood can be wiped out in one attack. Escalating stock theft and related violence have profound social consequences, bringing fear and insecurity to ordinary people. People are abandoning their villages and migrating to town and to South Africa to look for work. Community relations have become fraught with tension and suspicion. Nearly half of all stockowners interviewed suspect specific individuals within their own village are involved in the theft of animals – acting either as informants or actual thieves. Invariably it is the poor who are fingered and stigmatised. Communal cooperation such as livestock loaning for ploughing and mafisa (sharing of products) is in steep decline, as are cultural activities and celebrations which involve the slaughter of animals. Cross-border cooperation, activities and initiatives have collapsed and there is considerable animosity and hatred between the communities on either side of the border. Even casual visiting and shopping have all but ceased. Prevention efforts have involved some cross-border cooperation between villages to apprehend thieves and return cattle but these efforts are sporadic and make little dent on the problem. They often also lead to vicious reprisals from stock-theft syndicates. Vigilantism is on the rise in the face of widespread perceptions that the police and the courts on both sides of the border are either ineffectual or corrupt. This paper examines the inadequacies of the policing of the crisis, highlighting the low rates of arrest and prosecution. The difficulties of geography and inadequate resources which hamper effective policing are highlighted. Only in areas where the army is stationed or soldiers patrol the border has there been any marked decrease in theft. The situation is bound to deteriorate further unless there is effective national-level attention and intervention. The low-level civil war in the nearby Tsolo district of South Africa in 1997 was fuelled by a potent mix of poverty, mine retrenchments and stock theft. This conflict could well pale in comparison with the volatile situation building in the southern Lesotho border zone. Here, the same combination of factors are compounded by ethnic and national difference, and the strategic manipulation of borders by stock thieves on both sides. Both governments need to recognize that this local crisis could escalate into a major conflagration and intervene to defuse the situation, calm tensions and work towards effective policing and a political solution. Within Lesotho, the passage of a new Stock Theft Act promises heavy penalties for the shadowy figures involved in organized raiding, provided they can be caught. The institution of a national stock register also seems a step in the right direction though its likely effectiveness is debated. Both the Lesotho and South African governments should acknowledge that a crisis situation exists and that this is a regional problem. Only when national governments, working together with local stakeholders, take the problem seriously and begin cooperating can workable initiatives to halt this devastating social and economic plague be implemented

The status of women police officers: an international review

This paper reports on a survey of English-language police department websites, annual reports and other reports in order to identify key aspects of the status of women police internationally. Findings are reported for England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Eire, the United States, Canada, Australia (eight departments), New Zealand, South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Papua New Guinea, and Fiji. Data on the proportion of female officers were available from 18 of 23 locations, with a range between 5.1% and 28.8%. Recruit numbers were available for six locations, and ranged between 26.6% and 37.0%. Limited data on rank and deployment indicated overall improvements. Available longer-term trend data suggested that growth in female officers was slowing or levelling out. Overall, the study showed an urgent need to improve gender-based statistics in order to better inform strategies aimed at maximising the participation of women in policing

Gaszenie pożarów dawnego Gdańska na przykładzie porządków ogniowych z XVI w.

Artykuł przedstawia treść gdańskiego porządku ogniowego (Fewers Ordnung) z 1539 r. razem z jego aktualizacjami z lat 1565 i 1587. Dokument z 1539 r., dotychczas nie prezentowany i nie omawiany, jest ogniwem pośrednim między najstarszymi wilkierzami, skąpo opisującymi problematykę gaszenia pożarów, a odrębnymi i jednolitymi od tego roku przepisami przeciwpożarowymi. Niniejsze opracowanie, choć w niewielkim zakresie, nawiązuje do pracy Tadeusza Maciejewskiego Ustawodawstwo przeciwpożarowe w dawnym Gdańsku (1454–1793), opublikowanej w periodyku „Studia z Dziejów Państwa i Prawa Polskiego” w 2017 r.</jats:p

Zwalczanie pożarów w dawnym Wrocławiu – spojrzenie na sposoby obrony według porządków ogniowych z lat 1602 i 1630

This study is the first analysis of Wrocław’s fire regulations from 1602 and 1630. The origin of such acts can be derived from medieval city council regulations. One of the oldest dates back to March 19, 1324. Over time, the originally laconic sets of provisions evolved into multi-faceted fire protection regulations, which included issues concerning the organization of fire protection, fire alarms, fire tools, water supply and extinguishing methods. Both documents have a similar structure and content, as the one from 1630 is an amendment to the act of 1602. The main difference concerns the regulations related to the military defense of the city, which appeared for the last time in 1602. These documents were continued with amendments from 1751, 1760 and 1777, later replaced by regulations of state authorities