Agronomic Management of Indigenous Mycorrhizas

Many of the advantages conferred to plants by arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) are associated to the ability of AM plants to explore a greater volume of soil through the extraradical mycelium. Sieverding (1991) estimates that for each centimetre of colonized root there is an increase of 15 cm3 on the volume of soil explored, this value can increase to 200 cm3 depending on the circumstances. Due to the enhancement of the volume of soil explored and the ability of the extraradical mycelium to absorb and translocate nutrients to the plant, one of the most obvious and important advantages resulting from mycorrhization is the uptake of nutrients. Among of which the ones that have immobilized forms in soil, such as P, assume particular significance. Besides this, many other benefits are recognized for AM plants (Gupta et al, 2000): water stress alleviation (Augé, 2004; Cho et al, 2006), protection from root pathogens (Graham, 2001), tolerance to toxic heavy metals and phytoremediation (Audet and Charest, 2006; Göhre and Paszkowski, 2006), tolerance to adverse conditions such as very high or low temperature, high salinity (Sannazzaro et al, 2006), high or low pH (Yano and Takaki, 2005) or better performance during transplantation shock (Subhan et al, 1998). The extraradical hyphae also stabilize soil aggregates by both enmeshing soil particles (Miller e Jastrow, 1992) and producing a glycoprotein, golmalin, which may act as a glue-like substance to adhere soil particles together (Wright and Upadhyaya, 1998). Despite the ubiquous distribution of mycorrhizal fungi (Smith and Read, 2000) and only a relative specificity between host plants and fungal isolates (McGonigle and Fitter, 1990), the obligate nature of the symbiosis implies the establishment of a plant propagation system, either under greenhouse conditions or in vitro laboratory propagation. These techniques result in high inoculum production costs, which still remains a serious problem since they are not competitive with production costs of phosphorus fertilizer. Even if farmers understand the significance of sustainable agricultural systems, the reduction of phosphorus inputs by using AM fungal inocula alone cannot be justified except, perhaps, in the case of high value crops (Saioto and Marumoto, 2002). Nurseries, high income horticulture farmers and no-agricultural application such as rehabilitation of degraded or devegetated landscapes are examples of areas where the use of commercial inoculum is current. Another serious problem is quality of commercial available products concerning guarantee of phatogene free content, storage conditions, most effective application methods and what types to use. Besides the information provided by suppliers about its inoculum can be deceiving, as from the usually referred total counts, only a fraction may be effective for a particular plant or in specific soil conditions. Gianinazzi and Vosátka (2004) assume that progress should be made towards registration procedures that stimulate the development of the mycorrhizal industry. Some on-farm inoculum production and application methods have been studied, allowing farmers to produce locally adapted isolates and generate a taxonomically diverse inoculum (Mohandas et al, 2004; Douds et al, 2005). However the inocula produced this way are not readily processed for mechanical application to the fields, being an obstacle to the utilization in large scale agriculture, especially row crops, moreover it would represent an additional mechanical operation with the corresponding economic and soil compaction costs. It is well recognized that inoculation of AM fungi has a potential significance in not only sustainable crop production, but also environmental conservation. However, the status quo of inoculation is far from practical technology that can be widely used in the field. Together a further basic understanding of the biology and diversity of AM fungi is needed (Abbott at al, 1995; Saito and Marumoto, 2002). Advances in ecology during the past decade have led to a much more detailed understanding of the potential negative consequences of species introductions and the potential for negative ecological consequences of invasions by mycorrhizal fungi is poorly understood. Schwartz et al, (2006) recommend that a careful assessment documenting the need for inoculation, and the likelihood of success, should be conducted prior to inoculation because inoculations are not universally beneficial. Agricultural practices such as crop rotation, tillage, weed control and fertilizer apllication all produce changes in the chemical, physical and biological soil variables and affect the ecological niches available for occupancy by the soil biota, influencing in different ways the symbiosis performance and consequently the inoculum development, shaping changes and upset balance of native populations. The molecular biology tools developed in the latest years have been very important for our perception of these changes, ensuing awareness of management choice implications in AM development. In this context, for extensive farming systems and regarding environmental and economic costs, the identification of agronomic management practices that allow controlled manipulation of the fungal community and capitalization of AM mutualistic effect making use of local inoculum, seem to be a wise option for mycorrhiza promotion and development of sustainable crop production

Children with Moderate Acute Malnutrition with No Access to Supplementary Feeding Programmes Experience High Rates of Deterioration and No Improvement: Results from a Prospective Cohort Study in Rural Ethiopia

Background: Children with moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) have an increased risk of mortality, infections and impaired physical and cognitive development compared to well-nourished children. In parts of Ethiopia not considered chronically food insecure there are no supplementary feeding programmes (SFPs) for treating MAM. The short-term outcomes of children who have MAM in such areas are not currently described, and there remains an urgent need for evidence-based policy recommendations. Methods: We defined MAM as mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) of ≥11.0cm and <12.5cm with no bilateral pitting oedema to include Ethiopian government and World Health Organisation cut-offs. We prospectively surveyed 884 children aged 6–59 months living with MAM in a rural area of Ethiopia not eligible for a supplementary feeding programme. Weekly home visits were made for seven months (28 weeks), covering the end of peak malnutrition through to the post-harvest period (the most food secure window), collecting anthropometric, socio-demographic and food security data. Results: By the end of the study follow up, 32.5% (287/884) remained with MAM, 9.3% (82/884) experienced at least one episode of SAM (MUAC <11cm and/or bilateral pitting oedema), and 0.9% (8/884) died. Only 54.2% of the children recovered with no episode of SAM by the end of the study. Of those who developed SAM half still had MAM at the end of the follow up period. The median (interquartile range) time to recovery was 9 (4–15) weeks. Children with the lowest MUAC at enrolment had a significantly higher risk of remaining with MAM and a lower chance of recovering. Conclusions: Children with MAM during the post-harvest season in an area not eligible for SFP experience an extremely high incidence of SAM and a low recovery rate. Not having a targeted nutrition-specific intervention to address MAM in this context places children with MAM at excessive risk of adverse outcomes. Further preventive and curative approaches should urgently be considered

A Customer Perspective on Product Eliminations: How the Removal of Products Affects Customers and Business Relationships

Regardless of the apparent need for product eliminations, many managers hesitate to act as they fear deleterious effects on customer satisfaction and loyalty. Other managers do carry out product eliminations, but often fail to consider the consequences for customers and business relationships. Given the relevance and problems of product eliminations, research on this topic in general and on the consequences for customers and business relationships in particular is surprisingly scarce. Therefore, this empirical study explores how and to what extent the elimination of a product negatively affects customers and business relationships. Results indicate that eliminating a product may result in severe economic and psychological costs to customers, thereby seriously decreasing customer satisfaction and loyalty. This paper also shows that these costs are not exogenous in nature. Instead, depending on the characteristics of the eliminated product these costs are found to be more or less strongly driven by a company’s behavior when implementing the elimination at the customer interface

Unilateral versus bilateral thyroarytenoid Botulinum toxin injections in adductor spasmodic dysphonia: a prospective study

OBJECTIVES: In this preliminary prospective study, we compared unilateral and bilateral thyroarytenoid muscle injections of Botulinum toxin (Dysport) in 31 patients with adductor spasmodic dysphonia, who had undergone more than 5 consecutive Dysport injections (either unilateral or bilateral) and had completed 5 concomitant self-rated efficacy and complication scores questionnaires related to the previous injections. We also developed a Neurophysiological Scoring (NPS) system which has utility in the treatment administration. METHOD AND MATERIALS: Data were gathered prospectively on voice improvement (self-rated 6 point scale), length of response and duration of complications (breathiness, cough, dysphagia and total voice loss). Injections were performed under electromyography (EMG) guidance. NPS scale was used to describe the EMG response. Dose and unilateral/bilateral injections were determined by clinical judgment based on previous response. Time intervals between injections were patient driven. RESULTS: Low dose unilateral Dysport injection was associated with no significant difference in the patient's outcome in terms of duration of action, voice score (VS) and complication rate when compared to bilateral injections. Unilateral injections were not associated with any post treatment total voice loss unlike the bilateral injections. CONCLUSION: Unilateral low dose Dysport injections are recommended in the treatment of adductor spasmodic dysphonia

The Age of Onset of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

AbstractThis chapter characterises the age of onset (AOO) of schizophrenia spectrum disorders and summarises findings regarding a range of clinical and social outcomes, cognition, brain structure and mortality. The peak AOO for schizophrenia spectrum disorders is between 20 and 29 years, during which the estimated incidence among males and females was 4.15 and 1.71 per 10,000 person-years, respectively. Male gender has been linked with earlier onset age, although corresponding gender differences do not exist among those with family history and cannabis use. Early-onset schizophrenia has been linked with, for example, higher familial risk, poor premorbid social adjustment and cannabis use. In adult samples, earlier AOO was associated with worse outcome regarding hospitalisations, negative symptoms, relapses, social and occupational functioning, and global outcome. Earlier onset has also been linked with more severe outcomes in childhood and adolescence schizophrenia. In addition, early AOO has been linked with larger cognitive deficits and brain alterations. In the few existing studies, later AOO has been linked with a higher suicide rate. In all, the current study found a number of differences between patients with a different AOO. However, the studies on AOO are relative heterogeneous in methodology and have provided varying results. More good-quality studies are needed that include patients without restriction on the onset age. AOO is an important characteristic of schizophrenia that could help when examining the origin, genetic mechanism and care of schizophrenia. Understanding factors that influence AOO in schizophrenia may offer clues to aid prevention of or delaying the onset of this debilitating group of disorders.Abstract This chapter characterises the age of onset (AOO) of schizophrenia spectrum disorders and summarises findings regarding a range of clinical and social outcomes, cognition, brain structure and mortality. The peak AOO for schizophrenia spectrum disorders is between 20 and 29 years, during which the estimated incidence among males and females was 4.15 and 1.71 per 10,000 person-years, respectively. Male gender has been linked with earlier onset age, although corresponding gender differences do not exist among those with family history and cannabis use. Early-onset schizophrenia has been linked with, for example, higher familial risk, poor premorbid social adjustment and cannabis use. In adult samples, earlier AOO was associated with worse outcome regarding hospitalisations, negative symptoms, relapses, social and occupational functioning, and global outcome. Earlier onset has also been linked with more severe outcomes in childhood and adolescence schizophrenia. In addition, early AOO has been linked with larger cognitive deficits and brain alterations. In the few existing studies, later AOO has been linked with a higher suicide rate. In all, the current study found a number of differences between patients with a different AOO. However, the studies on AOO are relative heterogeneous in methodology and have provided varying results. More good-quality studies are needed that include patients without restriction on the onset age. AOO is an important characteristic of schizophrenia that could help when examining the origin, genetic mechanism and care of schizophrenia. Understanding factors that influence AOO in schizophrenia may offer clues to aid prevention of or delaying the onset of this debilitating group of disorders

The PtdIns 3-Kinase/Akt Pathway Regulates Macrophage-Mediated ADCC against B Cell Lymphoma

Macrophages are important effectors in the clearance of antibody-coated tumor cells. However, the signaling pathways that regulate macrophage-induced ADCC are poorly defined. To understand the regulation of macrophage-mediated ADCC, we used human B cell lymphoma coated with Rituximab as the tumor target and murine macrophages primed with IFNγ as the effectors. Our data demonstrate that the PtdIns 3-kinase/Akt pathway is activated during macrophage-induced ADCC and that the inhibition of PtdIns 3-kinase results in the inhibition of macrophage-mediated cytotoxicity. Interestingly, downstream of PtdIns 3-kinase, expression of constitutively active Akt (Myr-Akt) in macrophages significantly enhanced their ability to mediate ADCC. Further analysis revealed that in this model, macrophage-mediated ADCC is dependent upon the release of nitric oxide (NO). However, the PtdIns 3-kinase/Akt pathway does not appear to regulate NO production. An examination of the role of the PtdIns 3-kinase/Akt pathway in regulating conjugate formation indicated that macrophages treated with an inhibitor of PtdIns 3-kinase fail to polarize the cytoskeleton at the synapse and show a significant reduction in the number of conjugates formed with tumor targets. Further, inhibition of PtdIns 3-kinase also reduced macrophage spreading on Rituximab-coated surfaces. On the other hand, Myr-Akt expressing macrophages displayed a significantly greater ability to form conjugates with tumor cells. Taken together, these findings illustrate that the PtdIns 3-kinase/Akt pathway plays a critical role in macrophage ADCC through its influence on conjugate formation between macrophages and antibody-coated tumor cells

Rapid Effects of Hearing Song on Catecholaminergic Activity in the Songbird Auditory Pathway

Catecholaminergic (CA) neurons innervate sensory areas and affect the processing of sensory signals. For example, in birds, CA fibers innervate the auditory pathway at each level, including the midbrain, thalamus, and forebrain. We have shown previously that in female European starlings, CA activity in the auditory forebrain can be enhanced by exposure to attractive male song for one week. It is not known, however, whether hearing song can initiate that activity more rapidly. Here, we exposed estrogen-primed, female white-throated sparrows to conspecific male song and looked for evidence of rapid synthesis of catecholamines in auditory areas. In one hemisphere of the brain, we used immunohistochemistry to detect the phosphorylation of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a rate-limiting enzyme in the CA synthetic pathway. We found that immunoreactivity for TH phosphorylated at serine 40 increased dramatically in the auditory forebrain, but not the auditory thalamus and midbrain, after 15 min of song exposure. In the other hemisphere, we used high pressure liquid chromatography to measure catecholamines and their metabolites. We found that two dopamine metabolites, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid, increased in the auditory forebrain but not the auditory midbrain after 30 min of exposure to conspecific song. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that exposure to a behaviorally relevant auditory stimulus rapidly induces CA activity, which may play a role in auditory responses

Efeito da continuidade da fisioterapia respiratória até a alta hospitalar na incidência de complicações pulmonares após esofagectomia por câncer

O presente estudo avaliou os efeitos na incidência de complicações pulmonares do cuidado contínuo de fisioterapia respiratória no pós-operatório de esofagectomia, até a alta hospitalar. Examinaram-se retrospectivamente 40 prontuários de pacientes de esofagectomia consecutivos (nenhuma exclusão), que foram divididos em dois grupos: um dos que receberam fisioterapia respiratória apenas na unidade de tratamento intensivo (gUTI, n=20) e outro dos que a receberam até a alta hospitalar (gALTA, n=20). Foram coletadas informações referentes ao pré, intra e pós-operatório. Os resultados mostram que gUTI e gALTA, respectivamente, apresentaram-se similares (média±dp) quanto a idade (55,5±9,9 e 57,1±10,8 anos), IMC (22,5±3,3 e 18±4 kg/m²), tempo de cirurgia (400±103,8 e 408,5±142 min), tempo de anestesia (498,3±107,3 e 516±148,9 min) e número de atendimentos de fisioterapia na UTI (9,6±14,9 e 8,3±7,6). Apesar de o gALTA apresentar história de tabagismo superior (35,7±17,6 vs 26,1±18,4 maços-ano, pThis study assessed the effects of chest physical therapy all through hospital stay until discharge onto the incidence of pulmonary complications in patients having undergone esophagectomy for cancer. Medical records of esophagectomy patients were examined and 40 subsequent ones selected (none excluded), and divided into two groups: one having received chest physiotherapy only in the intensive care unit (ICUg, n=20) and the other having received it during full hospital stay (DISg, n=20). Information concerning pre-, peri- and postoperative periods were drawn from patients' records. Results show that ICUg and DISg were similar (mean±sd) concerning age (55.5±9.9 vs 57.1±10.8 years old), BMI (22.5±3.3 vs 18±4 kg/m²), operating time (400±103.8 vs 408.5±142 min), anesthesia time (498.3±107.3 vs 516±148.9 min) and number of chest physical therapy sessions in the ICU (9.6±14.9 vs 8.3±7.6 sessions). Despite the fact that DISg patients had higher tobacco consumption than ICUg ones (35.7±17.6 vs 26.1±18.4 packs-year, p<0.05), there were 20% less pulmonary complications in this group when compared to the ICU group (10% vs 30%, p<0.05): lesser incidence (75%) of pleural effusion and 50% less of bronchopneumonia. DISg also had undergone a shorter time (less 4.5 days) with pleural drain on (p<0.05). These findings suggest chest physical therapy care all along hospital stay until discharge may reduce pulmonary complications after esophagectomy for cancer