Peritoneal Dialysis Solutions

Conventional peritoneal dialysis (PD) solutions are characterized by several undesirable characteristics, including acidic pH (5.2–5.5), high glucose concentrations (13.6–42.5 g/L), hyperosmolarity (360–511 mOsm/kg) and relatively high concentrations of glucose degradation products (GDPs). These characteristics have been shown to result in adverse clinical outcomes, including acute peritoneal membrane toxicity (manifested as inflow pain), chronic peritoneal toxicity (including membrane failure, ultrafiltration failure, peritonitis and encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis) and adverse systemic sequelae (including hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease and residual renal function decline). Consequently, there has been a great interest in manufacturing newer solutions with more ‘biocompatible’ features to mitigate these adverse effects. This has led to the development of neutral‐pH, low or ultralow GDP solutions, glucose‐sparing PD solutions (icodextrin and amino acid solutions), solutions using alternative osmotic agents (such as hyperbranched polyglycerol) and low‐sodium PD solutions. The aim of this chapter is to provide an up‐to‐date comprehensive review of all types of PD solutions that are currently available, including their impact on patient‐level outcomes

The Roles of Indoxyl Sulphate and p-Cresyl Sulphate in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Review of Therapeutic Options

Indoxyl sulphate (IS) and p-cresyl sulphate (PCS) are products of proteolytic bacterial fermentation by gut microbiota. They accumulate in the sera of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and have been associated with CKD progression and cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Therapeutic strategies for lowering IS and PCS include increased clearance (enhanced dialysis), gastrointestinal sequestration (oral adsorbents), reduced synthesis (dietary protein restriction, dietary fibre augmentation and pre-, pro- or synbiotics), antioxidants and organic anion transporter modulators. This review will discuss the roles of IS and PCS as therapeutic targets and examine the clinical evidence for different treatment options and their effects on CKD and cardiovascular disease risk. We will include our group’s research with pre-, pro- and synbiotic interventions to mitigate serum uraemic toxin accumulation and modify cardiovascular and renal risk

Centre Effects in Peritoneal Dialysis

Peritoneal dialysis (PD)-related complications and outcomes have been shown to be influenced by both patient- and centre-level factors. There is a significant variability in outcomes across different centres, which is not explained by patient factors alone. This chapter aims to evaluate those modifiable centre-level factors that have been shown to impact PD outcomes, focussing specifically on peritonitis and technique failure, and the evidence that addressing these centre effects may lead to appreciable improvements in PD patient outcomes. Peritonitis rates have been shown to be related to a centre’s degree of automated PD (APD) use, extent of icodextrin use, performance of home visits prior to PD commencement, the presence of a specialised PD nurse and duration of PD training. Better peritonitis outcomes have been shown to be associated with larger centre size, greater share of PD patients among dialysis cohorts and treatment of peritonitis with comprehensive empiric antimicrobial therapy. PD technique failure has been shown to be related to centre size and degree of PD experience. Although there is little evidence currently available to demonstrate that prospectively modifying centre factors improves PD outcomes, an Australian continuous quality improvement initiative has been associated with progressively improved peritonitis and technique failure outcomes

Establishing a core outcome set for peritoneal dialysis : report of the SONG-PD (standardized outcomes in nephrology-peritoneal dialysis) consensus workshop

Outcomes reported in randomized controlled trials in peritoneal dialysis (PD) are diverse, are measured inconsistently, and may not be important to patients, families, and clinicians. The Standardized Outcomes in Nephrology-Peritoneal Dialysis (SONG-PD) initiative aims to establish a core outcome set for trials in PD based on the shared priorities of all stakeholders. We convened an international SONG-PD stakeholder consensus workshop in May 2018 in Vancouver, Canada. Nineteen patients/caregivers and 51 health professionals attended. Participants discussed core outcome domains and implementation in trials in PD. Four themes relating to the formation of core outcome domains were identified: life participation as a main goal of PD, impact of fatigue, empowerment for preparation and planning, and separation of contributing factors from core factors. Considerations for implementation were identified: standardizing patient-reported outcomes, requiring a validated and feasible measure, simplicity of binary outcomes, responsiveness to interventions, and using positive terminology. All stakeholders supported inclusion of PD-related infection, cardiovascular disease, mortality, technique survival, and life participation as the core outcome domains for PD

Standardised Outcomes in Nephrology-Polycystic Kidney Disease (SONG-PKD): study protocol for establishing a core outcome set in polycystic kidney disease

BACKGROUND: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common potentially life threatening inherited kidney disease and is responsible for 5-10% of cases of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Cystic kidneys may enlarge up to 20 times the weight of a normal kidney due to the growth of renal cysts, and patients with ADPKD have an increased risk of morbidity, premature mortality, and other life-time complications including renal and hepatic cyst and urinary tract infection, intracranial aneurysm, diverticulosis, and kidney pain which impair quality of life. Despite some therapeutic advances and the growing number of clinical trials in ADPKD, the outcomes that are relevant to patients and clinicians, such as symptoms and quality of life, are infrequently and inconsistently reported. This potentially limits the contribution of trials to inform evidence-based decision-making. The Standardised Outcomes in Nephrology-Polycystic Kidney Disease (SONG-PKD) project aims to establish a consensus-based set of core outcomes for trials in PKD (with an initial focus on ADPKD but inclusive of all stages) that patients and health professionals identify as critically important. METHODS: The five phases of SONG-PKD are: a systematic review to identify outcomes that have been reported in existing PKD trials; focus groups with nominal group technique with patients and caregivers to identify, rank, and describe reasons for their choices; qualitative stakeholder interviews with health professionals to elicit individual values and perspectives on outcomes for trials involving patients with PKD; an international three-round Delphi survey with all stakeholder groups (including patients, caregivers, healthcare providers, policy makers, researchers, and industry) to gain consensus on critically important core outcome domains; and a consensus workshop to review and establish a set of core outcome domains and measures for trials in PKD. DISCUSSION: The SONG-PKD core outcome set is aimed at improving the consistency and completeness of outcome reporting across ADPKD trials, leading to improvements in the reliability and relevance of trial-based evidence to inform decisions about treatment and ultimately improve the care and outcomes for people with ADPKD

Catheter type, placement and insertion techniques for preventing catheter-related infections in chronic peritoneal dialysis patients

BackgroundPeritonitis is one of the limiting factors for the growth of peritoneal dialysis (PD) worldwide and is a major cause of technique failure. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of various catheter-related interventions for lowering the risk of PD-related peritonitis. This is an update of a review first published in 2004.ObjectivesTo evaluate the role of different catheter implantation techniques and catheter types in lowering the risk of PD-related peritonitis in PD patients.Search methodsWe searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies up to 15 January 2019 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Register (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov.Selection criteriaStudies comparing different catheter insertion techniques, catheter types, use of immobilisation techniques and different break-in periods were included. Studies of different PD sets were excluded.Data collection and analysisTwo authors independently assessed study quality and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using a random effects model and the results expressed as risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).Main resultsForty-two studies (3144 participants) were included: 18 evaluated techniques of catheter implantation, 22 examined catheter types, one assessed an immobiliser device, and one examined break-in period. In general, study quality was variable and almost all aspects of study design did not fulfil CONSORT standards for reporting.Catheter insertion by laparoscopy compared with laparotomy probably makes little or no difference to the risks of peritonitis (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.59 to 1.35; moderate certainty evidence), exit-site/tunnel infection (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.43 to 2.31; low certainty evidence), catheter removal/replacement (RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.86; low certainty evidence), technique failure (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.08; low certainty evidence), and death (all causes) (RR 1.26, 95% CI 0.72 to 2.20; moderate certainty evidence). It is uncertain whether subcutaneous burying of catheter increases peritonitis (RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.37 to 3.60; very low certainty evidence). Midline insertion compared to lateral insertion probably makes little or no difference to the risks of peritonitis (RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.32 to 1.33; moderate certainty evidence) and may make little or no difference to exit-site/tunnel infection (RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.12 to 2.58; low certainty evidence). Percutaneous insertion compared with open surgery probably makes little or no difference to the exit-site/tunnel infection (RR 0.16, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.30; moderate certainty evidence).Straight catheters probably make little or no difference to the risk of peritonitis (RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.31; moderate certainty evidence), peritonitis rate (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.21; moderate certainty evidence), risk of exit-site infection (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.34; moderate certainty evidence), and exit-site infection rate (RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.43; moderate certainty evidence) compared to coiled catheter. It is uncertain whether straight catheters prevent catheter removal or replacement (RR 1.11, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.66; very low certainty evidence) but straight catheters probably make little or no difference to technique failure (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.51 to 1.31; moderate certainty evidence) and death (all causes) (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.46; low certainty evidence) compared to coiled catheter. Tenckhoff catheter with artificial curve at subcutaneous tract compared with swan-neck catheter may make little or no difference to peritonitis (RR 1.29, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.96; low certainty evidence) and incidence of exit-site/tunnel infection (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.21; low certainty evidence) but may slightly improve exit-site infection rate (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.90; low certainty evidence).Authors' conclusionsThere is no strong evidence that any catheter-related intervention, including the use of different catheter types or different insertion techniques, reduces the risks of PD peritonitis or other PD-related infections, technique failure or death (all causes). However, the numbers and sizes of studies were generally small and the methodological quality of available studies was suboptimal, such that the possibility that a particular catheter-related intervention might have a beneficial effect cannot be completely ruled out with confidence

Patient-reported outcome measures for pain in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: A systematic review.

Pain is a common symptom in people with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), but it is assessed and reported inconsistently in research, and the validity of the measures remain uncertain. The aim of this study was to identify the characteristics, content, and psychometric properties of measures for pain used in ADPKD. We conducted a systematic review including all trials and observational studies that reported pain in people with ADPKD. Items from all measures were categorized into content and measurement dimensions of pain. We assessed the general characteristics and psychometric properties of all measures. 118 studies, we identified 26 measures: 12 (46%) measures were developed for a non-ADPKD population, 1 (4%) for chronic kidney disease, 2 (8%) for polycystic liver disease and 11 (42%) specifically for ADPKD. Ten anatomical sites were included, with the lower back the most common (10 measures [39%]), four measurement dimensions (intensity (23 [88%]), frequency (3 [12%]), temporality (2 [8%]), and sensory (21 [81%]), two pain types, nociceptive including visceral (15 [58%]) and somatic (5 [20%]), and neuropathic (2 [8%]), and twelve impact dimensions, where the most frequent was work (5 [31%]). The validation data for the measures were variable and only the ADPKD Impact Scale reported all psychometric domains. The measures for pain in ADPKD varied in terms of content and length, and most had not been validated in ADPKD. A standardized psychometrically robust measure that captures patient-important dimensions of pain is needed to evaluate and manage this debilitating complication of ADPKD

A comparison of graft and patient outcomes following kidney transplantation in extended hour and conventional haemodialysis patients

Differences in early graft function between kidney transplant recipients previously managed with either haemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis are well described. However, only two single-centre studies have compared graft and patient outcomes between extended hour and conventional HD patients, with conflicting results.This study compared the outcomes of all extended hour (≥24 hours/week) and conventional HD patients transplanted in Australia and New Zealand between 2000 and 2014. The primary outcome was delayed graft function (DGF), defined in an ordinal manner as either a spontaneous fall in serum creatinine of less than 10% within 24 hours, or the need for dialysis within 72 hours following transplantation. Secondary outcomes included the requirement for dialysis within 72 hours post-transplant, acute rejection, estimated glomerular filtration rate at 12 months, death-censored graft failure, all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, and a composite of graft failure and mortality.A total of 4,935 HD patients (378 extended hour HD, 4,557 conventional HD) received a kidney transplant during the study period. Extended hour HD was associated with an increased likelihood of DGF compared with conventional HD (adjusted proportional odds ratio 1.33; 95% confidence interval 1.06-1.67). There was no significant difference between extended hour and conventional HD in terms of any of the secondary outcomes.Compared to conventional HD, extended hour HD was associated with DGF, although long-term graft and patient outcomes were not different

Validating the SONG-PKD Pain Instrument, a Core Outcome Measure for Pain in ADPKD

Introduction: Pain is a critically important outcome in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD); however, it is infrequently and inconsistently reported in clinical trials. This study aimed to validate the Standardized Outcomes in Nephrology-Polycystic Kidney Disease (SONG-PKD) Pain measure, which includes 3 items related to pain (frequency, severity, and impact on life participation) measured on a 5-point Likert scale, in adults with ADPKD.Methods: A total of 316 adults with ADPKD from 21 countries participated online. The median (interquartile range) age of participants was 56 (44–66) years, 219 (69%) were female, and 222 (70%) had a university degree or higher. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, brief medical history, and 4 pain measures at baseline. The pain measures were readministered 2 days later. Internal consistency was evaluated with Cronbach's alpha. Test-retest reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and convergent validity was assessed using Spearman's rho. Known groups comparisons for patients with or without a history of kidney complications were performed using a Mann-Whitney rank sum test.Results: The SONG-PKD Pain measure demonstrated high internal consistency (0.94, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.93–0.95) and test-retest reliability (0.92, 95% CI: 0.90–0.94). There was a high convergence of SONG-PKD Pain with the Brief Pain Inventory-Short Form (BPI-SF; 0.84, 95% CI: 0.80–0.87) and a visual analog scale (VAS; 0.84, 95% CI: 0.81–0.87). There was a significant difference in the median scores of patients with and without a history of complications (4.0 vs. 0.0, P &lt; 0.001).Conclusion: SONG-PKD Pain instrument is a brief and simple measure that has demonstrated strong psychometric properties.</p