Report on VECTO Technology Simulation Capabilities and Future Outlook

The European Commission is developing the Vehicle Energy Consumption Calculation Tool (VECTO) for Heavy Duty Vehicle CO2 certification purposes. VECTO is a vehicle simulation tool tailored to estimate CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles of different categories, sizes and technologies. Further development and optimization of VECTO and the CO2 certification methodology requires assessing their capacity to properly simulate specific vehicle technologies and gathering additional feedback on the possibility to capture future technologies which are expected to be deployed on heavy-duty vehicles in the years to come. In order to investigate the VECTO capabilities and performance a dedicated questionnaire was formulated and distributed to various stakeholders. The technologies under investigation were previously identified through a literature review. The feedback received clearly pointed out the technologies that can be properly simulated by VECTO, which constituted an important part of the initial technology list, pointing out that VECTO and the accompanying certification methodology have reached a good level of maturity. The responses provided also some initial feedback on the implementation approach for the technologies which are not properly captured at the moment. The latter were separated into three groups based on the type of work that is required for including them in the certification methodology which could relate either to the development of the VECTO software or further expansion-specialization of CO2 certification methodology or a combination of the two. The current report presents the findings of the survey and outlines possible future steps for the further development of VECTO software and the accompanying certification methodologyJRC.C.4 - Sustainable Transpor

Review of in use factors affecting the fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of passenger cars

This report primarily investigates the factors that affect fuel consumption and CO2 emissions which are not accounted for in the current type approval test and result in a shortfall between type approval and real-world fuel consumption or the corresponding CO2 emission values. A comprehensive literature review is carried out, in which we examine the available information and aim to provide qualitative and quantitative data. Where information is e insufficient, we point out the gap in knowledge. In addition, we have examined by means of simulation the significance of several factors that may change during every-day operation and may depend either on the driver or on external conditions. Several factors were identified affecting the in-use fuel consumption and CO2 emissions resulting in a shortfall between the type approval and real-world values. These include the increased electrical power load (e.g. A/C, steering assist), aerodynamic alterations (roof box, aerofoils), ambient conditions (temperature, wind, rain and altitude), driving behavior (aggressive driving, driver training), vehicle condition (lubrication, tyre condition), increased vehicle mass (passengers, additional equipment), road conditions (road surface, traffic conditions). They are complemented by so-called "flexibilities" associated with the existing NEDC-based type approval procedure. The combined effect of the different factors affecting CO2 emissions,, although not fully cumulative, can result in shortfall values ranging between 25% and 35%, based on information collected, the calculations run and the assumptions adopted in this study. These figures are in line with other literature sources where shortfall ranges from 20% up to 50% compared to the official certification value are reported. The per-passenger CO2 performance significantly improves when the occupancy rate is considered, hence a separate analysis was performed to this end. It can be concluded that due to the increase complexity of modern vehicles, the increasing number of passenger comfort systems and the great variety of possible operating conditions, it is difficult to capture the real-world fuel consumption with an exhaustive accuracy. It is expected that the introduction of the new test protocol (WLTP) will be a step forward in closing this shortfall. A separate analysis on the expected WLTP impact on CO2 is presented. It cannot be overlooked that driver behavior is an important element and therefore additional measures, in particular proper driver training and information, can help to reduce the discrepancy observed by drivers between their own in-use CO2 emissions from passenger cars compared to the test results.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor

Future CO2 reducing technologies in VECTO

The software tool VECTO is used to determine the energy demand, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of new heavy-duty vehicles. The tool takes into account the relevant vehicle component technologies that affect fuel consumption and CO2 emissions and should be updated when new relevant technologies are brought to the market. This work presents the results of a survey investigating the capability of VECTO to simulate new vehicle technologies, along with CO2 reduction potential and the expected penetration rate in the market of these technologies. An in-depth analysis of these new technologies is presented in this work. Many of the technologies demonstrating high potential in reducing CO2 and market uptake in the near future (e.g. aero devices for trailers and bodies and hybrid electric powertrains) are currently being implemented in VECTO. The next steps can include zero-emission vehicles, such as fuel cell vehicles, and technologies that could be easily implemented.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable Transpor

Estimating the CO2 Emissions Reduction Potential of Various Technologies in European Trucks Using VECTO Simulator

Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) account for some 5% of the EU’s total greenhouse gas emissions. They present a variety of possible configurations that are deployed depending on the intended use. This variety makes the quantification of their CO2 emissions and fuel consumption difficult. For this reason, the European Commission has adopted a simulation-based approach for the certification of CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of HDVs in Europe; the VECTO simulation software has been developed as the official tool for the purpose. The current study investigates the impact of various technologies on the CO2 emissions of European trucks through vehicle simulations performed in VECTO. The chosen vehicles represent average 2015 vehicles and comprised of two rigid trucks (Class 2 and 4) and a tractor-trailer (Class 5), which were simulated under their reference configurations and official driving cycles. The effects of aerodynamics, auxiliary systems, curb-weight, tyre rolling resistance, engine internal losses, and engine and gearbox efficiency were investigated. Factors exhibited a varying reduction potential that depended on the vehicle category and the driving cycle. Results indicate where focus should be given for improving the energy performance of trucks in view of the Commission’s future efforts to propose CO2 reduction targets for HDVs.JRC.C.4 - Sustainable Transpor

A generalized component efficiency and input-data generation model for creating fleet-representative vehicle simulation cases in VECTO

The Vehicle Energy Consumption calculation Tool (VECTO) is used for the official calculation and reporting of CO2 emissions of HDVs in Europe. It uses certified input data in the form of energy or torque loss maps of driveline components and engine fuel consumption maps. Such data are proprietary and are not disclosed. Any further analysis of the fleet performance and CO2 emissions evolution using VECTO would require generic inputs or reconstructing realistic component input data. The current study attempts to address this issue by developing a process that would create VECTO input files based as much as possible on publicly available data. The core of the process is a series of models that calculate the vehicle component efficiency maps and produce the necessary VECTO input data. The process was applied to generate vehicle input files for rigid trucks and tractor-trailers of HDV Classes 4, 5, 9 and 10. Subsequently, evaluating the accuracy of the process, the simulation results were compared with reference VECTO results supplied by various vehicle manufacturers. The results showed that the difference between simulated and reference CO2 emissions was on average -0.6% in the Long Haul cycle and 1% in the Regional Delivery. Such a process could be a powerful tool for calculating HDV CO2 emissions for development and analysis purposes, e.g. for new vehicle prototypes or multistage vehicles, and for creating VECTO equivalent models that can be used to assess alternative operating conditions and mission profiles of existing vehicle models. The methodology was applied for creating input of various components in the US tool for HDV certification, GEM, for generic sample-vehicle models available.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor

Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions from Passenger Cars in Europe - Laboratory versus Real-World Emissions

Official laboratory monitoring data indicate a progressive decline in the average fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of the European passenger car fleet. There is increasing evidence to suggest that officially reported CO2 values do not reflect the actual performance of the vehicles on the road. A reported difference of 30-40% between official values and real-world estimates was found which has been continuously increasing. This paper reviews the influence of different factors which affect fuel consumption and CO2 emissions on the road and in the laboratory. Factors such as driving behavior, vehicle configuration and traffic conditions are reconfirmed as highly influential. Neglected factors (eg side winds, rain, road grade) which may have significant contributions are also identified. Results show that the certification procedure margins can account between 10-20% in the gap between the official values and reality which was estimated to be in the order of 40% (47.5gCO2/km) but could range up to 60% or down to 19% depending on traffic conditions. The introduction of a new test protocol is expected to bridge about half of the present divergence between laboratory and real world. Despite the substantial research found on the topic a lack of common test procedures, analysis tools and methods and most importantly coordinated activity across different countries has been identified. Additional research is needed in order to accurately reproduce real world vehicle operation and propose targeted actions for CO2 reduction. In-use fuel consumption monitoring could be used in order to assess the gap on a continuous basis.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor

Ανάπτυξη μεθοδολογίας για τον προσδιορισμό των εκπομπών CO2 επιβατηγών οχημάτων στα πλαίσια των εκπομπών σε πραγματικές συνθήκες

Many regions around the globe have implemented mandatory CO2 emission targets for both light and heavy-duty vehicles. These targets are monitored through certification approaches, primarily relying on laboratory measurements conducted using chassis dynamometers. However, there's a notable discrepancy between these laboratory-certified values and real-world on-road performance due to various factors affecting fuel and energy consumption during actual operation. To address this challenge, the Thesis aims to develop a methodology based on vehicle simulation to predict representative on-road fuel and energy consumption values using limited data. This approach includes incorporating provisions of regulations, such as the On-Board Fuel Consumption Meter (OBFCM), to enhance calculations for specific vehicles to improve and enhance the accuracy of simulations. The Thesis is structured into several chapters, beginning with the introduction that outlines the objectives and scope; to create a tool capable of simulating vehicle emissions using limited input data. Subsequent chapters delve into the background of fuel consumption parameters, vehicle measurements for model validation and verification, simulation model development, model adjustment for improved accuracy, and potential applications of the developed methodology. Key findings include the identification of factors contributing to the discrepancy between certification and on-road values, such as vehicle mass, aerodynamic resistance, rolling resistance, temperature, driving behaviour, and traffic conditions. The simulation model development involves grouping vehicles into clusters based on powertrain and engine capacity, simulating generic vehicles under various conditions, and validating the model against on-road measurements. Model adjustment strategies include transitioning from a vehicle-generic to a vehicle- specific approach to reduce discrepancies in fuel and electric energy consumption calculations. The simulation model demonstrates its versatility and effectiveness in raising user awareness and promoting energy-efficient vehicles through its integration into the MILE21 – LIFE project. In addition, it has demonstrated its capability to be deployed in other regions such as in the USA. The Thesis concludes with an evaluation of the simulation model's performance and suggestions for future research to further enhance its accuracy and applicability. Areas for improvement include investigating the cold start effect, evaluating the impact of auxiliary usage, refining vehicle-specific parameters using OBFCM data, capturing also pollutant emissions, and exploring vehicle-to-platform communication for monitoring and automatically updating the simulation model. In summary, the developed simulation model successfully addresses the challenges of predicting on-road fuel and energy consumption values and offers valuable insights for institutions and research organizations focused on mitigating emissions and raising user awareness.Πολλές περιοχές σε όλο τον κόσμο έχουν εφαρμόσει υποχρεωτικούς στόχους εκπομπών CO2 τόσο για τα ελαφρά όσο και για τα βαρέα οχήματα. Οι στόχοι αυτοί παρακολουθούνται μέσω των διαδικασιών πιστοποίησης των οχημάτων, οι οποίες βασίζονται κυρίως σε εργαστηριακές μετρήσεις που πραγματοποιούνται με τη χρήση δυναμομετρικής πέδης. Ωστόσο, υπάρχει μία σημαντική απόκλιση μεταξύ των εργαστηριακά μετρημένων τιμών και των πραγματικών τιμών στον δρόμο, λόγω διαφόρων παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν την κατανάλωση καυσίμου και ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Για την αντιμετώπιση αυτού του προβλήματος, η Διδακτορική Διατριβή στοχεύει στην ανάπτυξη μίας μεθοδολογίας που βασίζεται στην προσομοίωση οχημάτων για την πρόβλεψη αντιπροσωπευτικών τιμών κατανάλωσης καυσίμου και ενέργειας σε πραγματικές συνθήκες λειτουργίας, χρησιμοποιώντας περιορισμένα δεδομένα. Η προσέγγιση αυτή περιλαμβάνει την ενσωμάτωση διατάξεων της Ευρωπαϊκής Νομοθεσίας, όπως το On-Board Fuel Consumption Meter (OBFCM), για τη βελτίωση των υπολογισμών για συγκεκριμένα οχήματα. Η Διδακτορική Διατριβή διαρθρώνεται σε κεφάλαια, ξεκινώντας με την εισαγωγή που περιγράφει τους στόχους και το πεδίο εφαρμογής: τη δημιουργία ενός εργαλείου ικανού να προσομοιώνει τις εκπομπές οχημάτων χρησιμοποιώντας περιορισμένα δεδομένα εισόδου. Τα επόμενα κεφάλαια εμβαθύνουν στο υπόβαθρο των παραμέτρων κατανάλωσης καυσίμου, στις μετρήσεις οχημάτων για την επικύρωση και την επαλήθευση του μοντέλου, στην ανάπτυξη του μοντέλου προσομοίωσης, στην προσαρμογή του μοντέλου για βελτιωμένη ακρίβεια και στις πιθανές εφαρμογές της μεθοδολογίας που αναπτύχθηκε. Τα βασικά ευρήματα περιλαμβάνουν τον προσδιορισμό των παραγόντων που συμβάλλουν στην απόκλιση μεταξύ των τιμών πιστοποίησης και των τιμών στο δρόμο, όπως η μάζα του οχήματος, η αεροδυναμική αντίσταση, η αντίσταση κύλισης, η θερμοκρασία, η οδηγική συμπεριφορά και οι συνθήκες κυκλοφορίας. Η ανάπτυξη του μοντέλου προσομοίωσης περιλαμβάνει την ομαδοποίηση των οχημάτων σε κατηγορίες με βάση το σύστημα μετάδοσης κίνησης και τον κυβισμό του κινητήρα, την προσομοίωση γενικών οχημάτων υπό διάφορες συνθήκες και την επικύρωση του μοντέλου με μετρήσεις στο δρόμο. Οι στρατηγικές προσαρμογής του μοντέλου περιλαμβάνουν τη μετάβαση από μια προσέγγιση γενικού οχήματος σε μια προσέγγιση συγκεκριμένου οχήματος για τη μείωση των αποκλίσεων στους υπολογισμούς κατανάλωσης καυσίμου και ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Το μοντέλο προσομοίωσης αποδεικνύει την ευελιξία και την αποτελεσματικότητά του στην ευαισθητοποίηση των χρηστών και την προώθηση ενεργειακά αποδοτικών οχημάτων μέσω της ενσωμάτωσής του στο έργο MILE21 – LIFE. Επιπλέον, έχει αποδείξει την ικανότητα να εφαρμοστεί και σε οχήματα άλλως περιοχών όπως οι ΗΠΑ. Η Διδακτορική Διατριβή ολοκληρώνεται με την αξιολόγηση των επιδόσεων του μοντέλου προσομοίωσης και με προτάσεις για μελλοντική έρευνα για την περαιτέρω ενίσχυση της ακρίβειας και των δυνατοτήτων εφαρμογής του. Τα προτεινόμενα πεδία βελτίωσης περιλαμβάνουν τη διερεύνηση του φαινομένου της ψυχρής εκκίνησης, την αξιολόγηση της επίδρασης της χρήσης των περιφερειακών συστημάτων όπως ο κλιματισμός, την ανάπτυξη εξειδικευμένων παραμέτρων υπολογισμού για κάθε όχημα με τη χρήση δεδομένων OBFCM, τον υπολογισμό επίσης των εκπομπών ρύπων και τη διερεύνηση της επικοινωνίας οχήματος-πλατφόρμας για την παρακολούθηση και την αυτόματη ενημέρωση του μοντέλου προσομοίωσης. Συνοψίζοντας, το μοντέλο προσομοίωσης εκπληρώνει με επιτυχία τους στόχους της πρόβλεψης των τιμών κατανάλωσης καυσίμου και ενέργειας σε πραγματικές συνθήκες και αποτελεί ένα χρήσιμο εργαλείο για ινστιτούτα και ερευνητικούς οργανισμούς που επικεντρώνονται στις εκπομπές CO2 και την ευαισθητοποίηση των χρηστών

Analysis of VECTO data for Heavy-Duty Vehicles (HDV) CO2 emission targets

This report summarises the analysis done on the data provided to the European Commissions’ Joint Research Centre by the Heavy Duty Vehicle manufacturers about the 2016 Heavy Duty Vehicles’ fleet composition and CO2 emissions performance. The results comprise of key metrics and a representative fleet-wide CO2 emissions baseline distribution for the year 2016 which were key inputs to the impact assessment study that supported the European Commission's proposal for new Heavy-Duty Vehicle CO2 standards in Europe. All datasets were checked for quality and errors and were validated against similar data calculated by external parties. CO2 emissions values were normalised to a common reference basis and CO2 distributions were produced for the four vehicle categories of interest. The normalisation process led to lower fleet-wide CO2 emissions, an important observation for defining realistic CO2 limits for the post-2020 period.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor

Reducing CO2 Emissions of Hybrid Heavy-Duty Trucks and Buses: Paving the Transition to Low-Carbon Transport

This study investigates the CO2 reduction potential of powertrain hybridisation on heavy-duty lorries and city buses. The analysis considers modern parallel and serial hybrid architectures, assessing their efficiency and limits in CO2 emission reduction through vehicle simulation in VECTO, which is the official tool of the European Commission for calculating heavy-duty vehicle fuel and energy consumption. The results reveal distinct trends for each vehicle type and architecture. In lorries, more significant improvements are observed in urban delivery profiles, reaching up to ~16%, indicating the benefits of hybridisation in transient conditions with energy recuperation opportunities. City buses, particularly those with serial architectures, exhibit significant emission reductions that reach 36%, making them suitable for urban environments. The optimisation of electric motor size and performance plays a crucial role in achieving emission reductions, while battery capacity must be carefully considered to avoid adverse effects. For lorries in urban delivery use, further improvements of 17.5% can be achieved by utilising a 160 kW engine motor and 30 kWh battery. Buses are already quite well optimised, with serial architecture presenting the highest benefits with a 120 kW electric motor and a battery of 11 kWh. Future research should focus on supercapacitors and gearboxes to improve efficiency at higher vehicle speeds and assess hybridisation potential in interurban coach travel. The heavy-duty vehicle sector can make significant strides towards low-carbon transport by maximising hybrid powertrain efficiency and emission reductions